Spartan Women: Political and Social Equality

 Plutarch, "The Sayings of Spartan Women" - What values can we identify?

• Gorgo: Once when her father told her to give some grain to a man by way of payment, and added "It is because he showed me how to make the wine taste good" she said "Then father, there will be more wine drunk, and the drinkers will become more intemperate and depraved"
• Gorgo: Being asked by a woman from Attica, "Why is it that you Sparten women that lord it over your men" she said "Because we are the only women that are mothers of men"
• Gorgo: As she was encouraging her husband Leonidas, when he was about to set out for Thermopylae, to show himself worthy of Sparta, she asked what she should do and he said "Marry a good man and have good children"
• Gurtias: When Acrotatus, her grandson, in a fight with other boys received many blows, and was brought home for dead, and the family and friends were all wailing said "Will you stop your noise? He has shown from what blood he was sprung"
• One woman sent forth her sons, five in number, to war, and, standing in the outskirts of the city, she awaited anxiously the outcome of the battle. And when someone arrived and, in answer to her enquiry, reported that all her sons had met death, she said "I did not inquire about that, you vile harlot, but how fares our country?" And when he declared that it was victorious, "Then" she said "I accept gladly also the death of my sons"

Helen of Sparta/Troy

• The daughter of Zeus and Leda
• Wife of King Menelaus of Sparta
• Sister of Castor, Plydeuces and Clytemnestra
• Her abduction by Paris brought about the Trojan War. Helen was described by Christopher Marlowe as having "the face that launched a thousand ships"

Gorgo, Queen of Sparta

• Wife of Leonidas and heiress to the throne
• Very powerful within the government
• Herodotus records, famously assisted both her father, Cleomenes, in resisting a bribe and later was responsible fot Sparta decoding the warning the Persian forces were about to invade Greece when, after Spartan generals could not decode a wooden tablet covered in wax, she ordered them to clear the wax, revealing the warning
• When asked by a woman from Attica why Spartan women were the only women in the world who could rule men, she famously stated that it was because only Spartan women give birth to real men

Overview

• The Spartan military ethos had implications for females as well as males
• Spartan females were the only ones in Greece with a prescribed upbringing and educated by the state
• Spartan women enjoyed a status, power and respect that was unknown in the rest of the classical world

Position in Society

• They exercised outside, were well nourished and drank wine as part of their daily diet. Childbearing was their only social obligation
• They controlled their own properties, as well as the properties of male relatives who were away with the army
• It is estimated that women were the sole owners of at least 35% of all land and property in Sparta

Social Position

• The laws regarding a divorce were the same for both men and women
• Epikleros:
• Unlike women in Athens, if a Spartan woman became the heiress of her father because she had no living brothers to inherit, she was not required to divorce her current spouse in order to marry her nearest paternal relative
• Spartan women received as much education as men, as well as a substantial amount of physical education and gymnastic training

Education

• Organized according to age classes:
• Young girls
• Maidens who had reached puberty
• Married women
• Hairstyles announced their passage through life:
• As a maiden she wore her hair long and loose
• As a bride her hair was cropped
• As a married woman her hair was covered

Appearance

• Spartan women rarely married before the age of 20
• Unlike Athenian women who wore heavy, concealing clothes and were rarely seen outside the house, Spartan women wore short dresses and went where they pleased
• It was possible for them to appear entirely nude even publicly, which they did customarily only at festivals, as did the men

Alkman, "Maiden Songs"

• The conspicuous nature of Spartan women made them an object of fascination and beauty in the ancient world
• This is best represented by the Spartan poet Alkman who wrote in the 7th century (600s) BC
• Fragments of his work survive as papyri from Alexandria, and many contain descriptions of Spartan women during choral and athletic competitions,where Alkman espouses their beauty and charm.

Activity

Read Alkman's "Maiden Songs" A14 and A16

• What descriptions/images of Spartan women does Alkman offer us here? What qualities about them is he trying to emphasise?
• "I see her like the sun" - suggests that women are always there for Sparta and shining a light on them
• "She herself seems supreme, a strong prize-winner" - they are the prize of Sparta, proud to present themselves
• "I do not rate Lykaithos among the dead nor Enarsphoros and fast-footed Sebros and the violent, and helmeted" - saying they don't like the fighting women, or women who hace died without anything to show
• "Our renowned chorus leader in no way allows me to praise or find fault with her; for she herself seems to be supreme, as if one were to put a horse among cattle" - "horse among cattle" seems like a pretty accurate description of how Sparta viewed itself against other states, and how Spartan women viewed themselves against other Greek women
• The next part of the song also compares Spartan women to racehorses, for example, "a Scythian horse against an Iberian", so it conjures images of Sparta's women as fast, athletic, and strong like the horses described. One is also said to have a golden mane, maybe to do with the beauty that the sources all attribute to Spartan women
• "And she is admittedly not more musical than the sirens, for they are goddesses, but this ten of ours sings as well as eleven girls and gives voice like a swan on the streams of Xanthos, she and her lovely golden hair" - Again with the emphasis on appearance and hair. This also shows the importance Spartans placed on song
• "And she gazes more meltingly than sleep or death. And she is sweet quite deliberately" - this suggests that women knew of their power and sway over men and used it with intent
• "I see her like the sun, which Agido summons to shine on us; But our renowned chorus leader in no way allows me either to praise, Or to find fault with her; for she herself seems to be supreme, just as if One were to put a horse among cattle, A strong prize winner with thundering hooves That one dreams about from the shade of a cave"
• This verse is an emphasis on their natural beauty and their skills to stand out like the sun, where everything lights up when they are around, the comparison to horses is a compliment to how valued they are, within the whole of Greece, especially since horse racing and sports to do with horses are very much wanted. This comparison is also highlighting their strength and power within their society, 'The thundering hooves'. The cattle could be a link to the males or women from other societies
• "And I shall go to the meeting place, where I shall rapidly loosen my yellow hair" - Alkman is really drawing attention to the women's hair, especially blonde hair. Seems he's kind of enforcing a beauty standard, emphasising Spartan women's appearances. Women in Sparta were encouraged to grow their hair out long
• "For an abundance of purple is not enough to give protection, nor an intricate snake of solid gold..." This continues with a bunch of other things that don't give protection, ending with "for fulfillment and completion belong to gods" - They're swearing off luxury and comfort, instead relying on the piety that we've seen Spaerans so often exhibit with sacrifices on campaign and such
• "If somehow she might love me...I would immediately do whatever she wanted" - very clear that Spartan women weren't subservient

Sexual Equality

• Women were able to negotiate with their husbands to bring their lovers into their homes
• According to Plutarch in his Life of Lycurgus:
• Men both allowed and encouraged their wives to bear the children of other men
• However, some historians argue that this 'wife sharing' was only reserced for elder males who had not yet produced an heir

Negative Sources Views

• Aristotle
• Considering some 400 years of Spartan history complained that Spartan women enjoyed altogether too much freedom, power and prestige
• He believed that the Lycurgan system was flawed from the start because only men conformed to it whilst women escaped its regulations
• Convinced that Spartan women indulged in 'every kind of luxury and intemperance' - promoting greed and an attendant degeneration of the Spartan ideal of equality among male citizens

Sourcework: Spartan Women

• What roles and responsibilities did Spartan women have? For each, what would be the importance of these to the Spartan state?
• Plutarch, Lycurgus, 14-15
• "First he toughened the girls physically by making them run and wrestle and throw the discus and javelin. Thereby their children in embryo would make a strong start in strong bodies and would develop better, while the women themselves would also bear their pregnancies with vigour and would meet the challenge of childbirth in a successful, relaxed way"
• This meant that a woman's role was primarily that of bearing children since her responsibilities were of that to be physically fit, which would, in turn, create strong children. This was important because Sparta’s population grew never slowly since many of the men were often killed in their prime at war, leaving the state in a constant struggle to maintain an average population. Women had to have children as fast as the men died at war to replace them, and by being as strong as they could be meant that their babies were given the best chance of survival. 
• "Aristotle claims wrongly that he tried to discipline the women but gave up when he could not control the considerable degree of license and power attained by women because of their husbands' frequent campaigning"
• When the men were away, women were left "in full control". Their primary responsibility was still childbearing; Lycurgus strengthened them through physical exercise specifically so that they could endure childbirth and have strong babies
• “He did away with prudery, sheltered upbringing and effeminacy of any kind.” They had “equal participation in both excellence and ambition”, resulting in women speaking “in the way Leonidas’ wife Gorgo had done” when she remarked that Spartan women were “the only ones who give birth to men.”  
• To avoid jealousy, children were seen as collective, and an older man could allow his wife to have a child with a younger, well-bred Spartan and adopt the child as his own. Or a noble Spartan could have children with someone else’s wife who was known for having good children. (I am NOT directly quoting that section.)
• Because childbearing was so important, Lycurgus wanted the best Spartans to get together to produce the best kids. So there was no concept of adultery or jealousy; if a Spartan man had eyes on a woman, whether they were each married to others would be irrelevant. Plutarch relates the confusion one foreigner had when hearing that Sparta had no punishment for adultery. 
• Beyond Plutarch’s…uh…detailed description, the Spartans essentially practiced selective breeding through polyamory. 
• There was a responsibility of 'Nazi not nurture' in a way, with the girls and woman 'making fun of each of the young men' this was done to help them fix their 'mistakes', other times they would create songs of the boys 'in praises' and these would then ‘fill the boys with a sense of achievement’. Whilst it doesn't seem like much of a responsibility these acts helped motivate and push the men to greatness and can help in their standing especially as 'the kings and the elders attended the spectacle'. In the long run this could help the men become full Spartans and get into the mess halls.
• The woman would be in charge (Obviously) of 'pregnancies', this responsibility was important due to where they were in charge of producing the next men or woman of Sparta, pushing their state to be stronger and carry on. This is shown with how he had the woman prepare for their responsibility making sure none were slacking or weak. With the process, being training them 'run...wrestle'. 
• “He made young girls no less than young men grow used to walking nude in processions, as well as to dancing and singing at certain festivals with the young men present looking on”.  
• “There were inducements to marry” –allowing families to unite and make more Spartan babies
• Xenophon, 1
• “Elsewhere in Greece, girls who are to become mothers, are brought up in the approved fashion, are reared on the simplest possible diet, and with a minimum of luxury foods; they either drink no wine at all, or only drink it diluted. Girls are expected to imitate the usually sedentary life of craftsmen, and to work their wool sitting quietly.”
• The complete opposite is true in Sparta: “Lycurgus felt that slave girls were perfectly capable of producing garments, and that the most important job of free women was to bear children; he decreed that women should take as much trouble over physical fitness as men.”   
• Aristotle, "Spartan Women"
• In the days of Spartan supremacy, “much was managed by women” – likely referring to them managing their husband’s households whilst they were away on campaign, as well as their own property by the late fifth-century BC.
• What can we learn from the sources about the relationship between men and women in Sparta?
• Plutarch
• “His bride at the same time devised schemes and helped to plan how they might meet each other unobserved at suitable moments.”  
• This shows that while in childhood there was rivalry between the girls and boys, in adulthood there was unity between the two despite each spending so little time with each other. By them spending so little time together leads to the assumption that they would not have as strong a relationship as a man among those of his mess hall. And yet there is an immediate sense of loyalty between a wife and husband within Sparta holding that there was very little doubt or rejection between the two. Altogether their relationships were of an understanding nature with little complication as to what the relationships were meant to be. 
• Girls had to train naked just like boys, and sometimes danced and sang with the boys watching. Nudity was not seen as embarrassing; rather, it made them focus on physical fitness and frugality.  
• They would also “helpfully criticise the boys’ mistakes”, or compose songs to compliment some of the boys, filling them with a “great sense of ambition and rivalry.” “The jibes of their playful humour was no less cutting than warnings of a serious type, especially as the kings and elders attended the spectacle along with the rest of the citizens.”  
• Frequent nudity and performances were also meant by Lycurgus to make the boys attracted to the girls as an “inducement to marry”, putting “a certain civil disability” on those who did not by excluding them from the Gymnopaediae and making them dance naked around the agora in winter.  
• When Spartans married, the bride would have her head shaved, dress as a man, and be kidnapped by the groom during the night, after which he would return to his usual sleeping quarters. This would continue for a long time – “some had children before they saw their wives in daylight” – and was intended by Lycurgus to keep them in their prime, modest, and keen to see each other. 
• This wouldn’t just happen once, whilst there was the practice of polygamy and homosexuality, the male would 'warily visit his bride in secret', where the woman also 'devised schemes and helped to plan how they might meet'
• “Lycurgus placed a certain civil disability on men who did not marry, for they were excluded from the spectacle of the Gymnopaediae. In winter the magistrates would order them to parade naked in a circle around the agora, and as they paraded they sang a special song composed about themselves, which said that their punishment was fair because they were flouting the laws. In addition they were deprived of the respect and deference which young men habitually showed their elders.” – men were expected to marry and faced discrimination if they didn’t.
• “After spending only a short time with her, he would depart discreetly so as to sleep wherever he usually did along with the other young men. And this continued to be the practice thereafter: while spending days with his contemporaries, and going to sleep with them, he would warily visit his bride in secret, ashamed and apprehensive in case someone in the house might notice him. His bride at the same time devised schemes and helped to plan how they might meet each other unobserved at suitable moments.” – made it unseemly to visit their partner
• "While excluding from marriage any kind of outrageous and disorderly behaviour, he made it honourable for worthy men to share children and their production, and derided people who hold that there can be no combination or sharing of such things, and who avenge any by assassinations and wars.” – approve adultery.
• “The custom was to capture women for marriage- not when they were slight or immature, but when they were in their prime and ripe for it.”   
• Xenophon
• "for he made it disgraceful for a man to be seen entering or leaving his wife’s apartment. Thus their desire would inevitably be heightened when they did meet, and any offspring which might result would therefore be stronger than if the parents were surfeited with each other.” – made it unseemly to meet their partner in hopes of increasing lust for strong children
• “he did not allow men to take wives as and when they wished, but decreed that marriage should take place at the period of physical prime, thinking that this also was likely to produce fine children.”
• Why, according to Aristotle, was the role of women in Sparta fundamentally flawed?
• “Spartan women live intemperately, enjoying every license and indulging in every luxury.” Aristotle here believes that a state should be divided into women and men, and any state that does not subjugate women is “not properly legislated for.” So, despite Spartan women living so frugally, the very fact that they were somewhat more equal to men than other societies triggers Aristotle.
• “What is the difference between women ruling and rulers ruled by women? The result is the same.” They are harmful to all aspects of life. 
• “It is said that Lycurgus endeavored to bring them under the control of his laws, but when they resisted he gave up the attempt.” Plutarch tells us that Aristotle is wrong here. 
• Also, Aristotle keeps saying that women's authority was a problem, but he doesn't really explain why. The only example he gives is that, when Laconia was invaded by the Thebans, "they caused more confusion than the enemy", without explaining how. It's as if it's meant to be obvious to us why women having power would be a problem, which in itself might show how unique Sparta was; if women being oppressed was so normal as to be obvious, and any semblance of freedom triggered Aristotle this much, then clearly they had a great deal of power compared to other societies
• “The lack of control over Spartan women is detrimental both to the attainment of the aims of the constitution and to the happiness of the state.”  
• “In all constitutions in which the position of women is ill-regulated. An inevitable result under such a constitution is that esteem is given to wealth, particularly in cases when the men are dominated by the women” – referring to women holding 2/5^th of all property in Sparta, he believed women should never be above men.
• “Boldness is not a quality useful in any of the affairs of daily life, but only, if at all, in war. Yet even here the influence of the Spartans’ women has been very harmful. This was demonstrated when Laconia was invaded by the Thebans: instead of playing a useful part, like women in other states, they caused more confusion than the enemy.”

Spartan Boys: Hebontes or Eirens

 Overview

• In most Greek cities young men became full adult citizens once they reached military age, usually around the age of twenty
• Spartans, however, entered a stage between the agoge and full adulthood, probably between 20 and c.30 years of age, which Xenophon saw as a unique feature of Spartiate life

Education Part One

• The young men (hebontes in Xenophon, eirens in Plutarch) participated in the syssitia
• They were liable to military service together with the older Spartiates
• They were not yet allowed to vote in the assembly or to marry and set up their own household

Education Part Two

• The hebontes were involved in musical performances (choruses, dance) at festivals
• They also participated in competitions - which means that training in musical as well as physical disciplines probably remained a regular part of their lives

Additional Roles

• We know that the hebontes played a role in the education of the younger boys, some in an official capacity as group leaders and supervisors, and presumably many more by forming personal relationships with particular boys

Xenophon as a Source

• In Xenophon's Spartan Constitution the life of the hebontes is characterised by intense competition
• He reports that the best were selected for a position in the elite corps of 300 hippeis (literally 'horsemen', but these did, in fact, fight with the infantry)
• All others remained in competition with each other and especially with those who had been singled out
• They watched each other's behaviour and Xenophon says that the rivalry was so intense that "they fought whenever they met"
• This period, therefore, meant further training in all aspects of an ideal Spartiate's life
• It allowed or even encouraged the young men to jostle for positions within Spartan society before they became full citizens

Spartan Education: Boys Activity

Find examples of the following:

• Tests of endurance
• Plutarch
• "women would test their baby’s constitutions by washing them in wine instead of water” – a test to see whether their baby is healthy and if so, the wine would make them stronger
• If the baby proved well-built and sturdy they instructed the father to bring it up. But if it was puny and deformed they dispatched it at the “place of rejection”.
• Boys had scant food to keep them from over-eating and had to steal to eat; if they were caught, they were punished not for stealing but for being an “unskilled thief” and would go hungry. 
• One story is that a boy was so determined not to be caught stealing a fox cub that he hid it under his cloak, letting his insides be clawed and ripped. Plutarch “witnessed many of them die under the lashes they received at the alter of Artemis Orthia."
• "the boys learned to read and write no more than was necessary"
• Xenophon
•  to not soften their feet, the boys "should harden them by going barefoot" as it would make it easier to climb, go downhill easier, and to be more swift
• The boys would also have to get past Spartans with whips to steal cheeses from the temple of Artemis Orthia, “to show that a brief moment of pain could bring enduring fame.” Lycurgus subjected growing boys to “the most demanding regime” and “as little free time as possible” to curb pride, insolence and temptation
• The boys had to go barefoot, so that they would become used to running, jumping and climbing without shoes. They also wore one garment all year to make them endure both heat and cold, and the Eirens were given enough food that no one overate or went “without experience of going short.” However, Lycurgus did let them steal to alleviate hunger, not because he could not provide for them but so that they would learn to stake out, sneak around and use spies, making them “more resourceful in obtaining the necessities of life and more prepared for war.”
• Plato
• “In addition, at the Gymnopaidiai, they have to show endurance, competing in the full heat of the summer.”
• “the endurance of pain – which is very much a feature of our society, in fighting by hand with each other, and in the ‘raids’ with many whippings resulting each time.”
• Competition between the boys
• Plutarch
• "Moreover, as they exercised boys were constantly watched their elders, who were always spurring them on to fight and contend with one another"
• The eirens would have boys judge each other and tell them who was best or strongest. A boy who did not answer was considered “as a sluggard whose mind showed not ambition to excel.”
• Boys were taught Laconian speech; Lycurgus had favoured short, sharp statements that expressed heavy ideas, so someone who babbled constantly would seem stupid as opposed to a boy who kept his mouth shut except to give sharp answers.
• Pausanias
• “They fight with fists, kick with their feet, bite, and gouge opponents’ eyes. I have just described the way they fight man to man: but they also charge at each other violently in a group and push each other into the water.”
• Ways of promoting comradery and equality
• Plutarch
• As soon as the boys reached 7, they would be distributed into troops and live together brought up together. They slept together by Squadron and troop on mattresses in which they made up for themselves.
• "The boys are accustomed to live, play and taught together all while learning how to live with one another."
• They were enthusiastic about song, which in style were “plain and unpretentious, while their subject matter was serious and calculated to mould character.”
• At festivals, the old men would sing first – “we were once valiant young men” – then the men in their prime – “but we are the valiant ones now; put us to the test, if you wish” – and finally the boys – “but we shall be far mightier.” Evidently even fun activities were meant to convince the boys to excel. The poets Terpander and Pindar portray the Spartans as “the most musical and the most warlike of people.”
• Xenophon
• “If an honourable man admired a boy’s character, and wished to become his friend in all innocence, and spend time with him, Lycurgus approved, and thought this was a very fine form of education. If however a man was clearly physically attracted to a boy, he saw this as a heinous disgrace, and ensured that there was no more physical love between men and boys as between parents and children or brother and brother. I am not surprised that many find this hard to believe (including Plutarch?) as many cities tolerate love between men and boys.”
• All the males were together referring 'himself as father, tutor and commander of each boy'- this rule promoted equality as then no one person would be better than everyone else.
• Kritias
• “Lakedaemonian boys drink just enough to bring the minds of all to cheerful optimism, their tongues to friendliness and restrained laughter…to eat and drink is appropriate to making them think and work, nor is there a day set aside for unrestrained drinking.”
• Custom to drink from the same wine cup and not to name people to drink their health.
• Ways of ensuring obedience and discipline to the state and its laws
• Plutarch
• ways of ensuring discipline and obedience, 'trained children to eat their food and not be fussy' ' not to be frightened of the dark or of being left alone' Desire to eliminate fear phobia and weakness to subscribe to culture of militarism and become toughest soldiers possible through obedience and discipline They had somebody to reprimand and punish the boy who slipped up.
• If a boy is caught, he receives many lashes of the whip for proving clumsiness.
• ‘the others kept their eyes on him, responded to his instructions, and endured their punishments from him, so that altogether this training served as a practice in learning ready obedience.’
• Plutarch, obedience: Captains of troops would punish the boys and they would accept it. “Their whole education was aimed at developing smart obedience, perseverance under stress, and victory in battle.”
• There was always someone nearby to reprimand the boys, and those two years older than them became their tutors (they were called eirens). They would serve the eirens meals like slaves and collect food. They eirens would punish boys in the presence of elders, and have to justify them if his punishments were too harsh or too light.
• Xenophon
• Lycurgus put a Paidonomos, a Spartan of the same class as those in power, in charge of the boys – he could “assemble the boys, inspect them and punish any faults severely. This official is also given a group of young men with whips for floggings when necessary; the result is considerable respect and obedience there.” If their instructors were gone, “any citizen nearby could give the boys whatever instructions seemed necessary and punish any misconduct.” As a result, all Spartans respected whoever was in charge.
• Lycurgus decreed that any boy who shirked his harsh training would lose all future privileges; thus, all other Spartans would make the boys do their duties so that they did not lose their privileges. The boys had to walk in silence, looking down, with hands inside their cloaks, to improve self-discipline – “you would be more likely to hear a stone statue speak.”
• If two Spartans were fighting, and a passer-by broke them up but they carried on, they were punished severely, so that “passion never becomes stronger than obedience to the laws.” “If a boy tells his father he has been beaten by another man, it is a disgrace for him to not beat him too.”
• Kritias
• they drink a moderate amount to to tie "their tongues to friendliness and restrained laughter"

Spartan Education System

 Overview

• Successful completion of the agoge was a prerequisite for Spartan citizenship. Public education was provided for girls as well as boys
• Spartan education was famed for its exceptional harshness and emphasis on physical skills and endurance. It was also characterised, however, by an astonishing degree of self-government, freedom and responsibility
• Furthermore, literacy in Sparta was higher than in any other Greek city-state, because only in Sparta was there a high degree of literacy among women as well as men. Spartan ("laconic") rhetoric style was admired throughout the ancient world, attesting to its high quality - a product of the agoge
• Spartan public education was the subject of extensive, and controversial, discussion even in the ancient world
• No other contemporary state provided for, and in fact required, its citizens to go through the same "upbringing" or agoge
• Unfortunately, because we must rely on descriptions of the system provided by outsiders, we have a kind of "mirror image" of the Spartan agoge
• Observers reported that which struck them as unique or different from education in their own cities, rather than reporting systematically about Sparta's system of education
• Equally distorting for the modern historian interested in Classical Sparta is the fact that most of our existing ancient sources in fact describe a Spartan educational system that was reinstituted in the Hellenistic period after what may have been nearly a century in abeyance
• It is often very difficult to distinguish "traditional" from "innovative" features of the described schooling
• Nevertheless, a number of characteristics of this education can be surmised

First Point

• It is important to note that collective education was considered so important that the  agoge was not only a compulsory prerequisite for citizenship, but all adult males bore an equal responsibility for rearing good citizens
• This was manifest in the laws that required boys in school to address all older men as "father" and gave any citizen the right to discipline a boy or youth under age
• All citizens were directly involved in the education of the next generation in another respects as well: at the age of 20, before being awarded citizenship at 21 and serving in the army, young Spartans acted as instructors in the agoge for their younger classmates
• Last but not least, despite the emphasis on public education, it would be absurd to think that parents did not take a very personal and intense interest in the education of their own offspring
• Numerous quotes demonstrate the pride and sense of personal accomplishment that Spartan mothers felt with regard to their sons

Second Point

• The principal goal of public education was to raise good future citizens
• One aspect of this goal is obvious: future citizens were by definition professional soldiers, and so the educational system very clearly sought to create physically hardened men, capable of enduring hardship, pain, and deprivation
• The emphasis of education was thus on athletic activities and military skills
• Less obvious and often overlooked by modern observers is the fact that the goal of producing good future citizens was not fulfilled by producing good soldiers alone
• Ideal future citizens were democratic, self-sufficient and independent. Thus, despite the harsh discipline, Sparta did not seek to break her youth or make them subservient
• Instead, they were taught democracy from the very start of their schooling - not in theory but in practice. On starting school at the age of seven, the boys were organized into units, teams, or "herds" - and elected their own leaders. Some sources suggest that they also "elected" their instructors from among the eligible 20 year olds

Spartan Government in Practice

Hetoemaridas - Gerousia

• There are almost no examples of individual Gerousia members directing decisions within Sparta, largely due to the external nature of our sources
• However, one such example does exist - Hetoemaridas
• He served in the period after the Persian Wars, when Sparta had lost control over the sea to Athens
• This example can be used to demonstrate the importance of the Gerousia and Geronted within the Spartan government

Activity

• What does this incident suggest about the power and influence of the Gerousia within Spartan society
• Diodorus
• A meeting of the gerousia was held at which they discussed war against the Athenians over the hegemony at sea. Similarly, when a meeting of the general assembly was held, the younger men and most of the others were very keen to recover the hegemony, thinking that if they could do so, they would benefit from great wealth - we were told by Herodotus that the kings had the final say over war and that "no one" questions their decisions - is Herodotus wrong? Or did the Kings originally have that power and then it was taken away from them in 5th century due to issues over corruption? (Note, many of the kings in the early 5th century BC - Cleomenes, Demaratus, Pleistoanax, Pausanias, were all indicted on corruption charges)
• Hetoimaridas was "a descendant of Herakles, who was well thought of by his fellow citizens for his character, took it upon himself to suggest that they allow the Athenians to maintain the hegemony, since it would not be in Sparta's interests to fight over the sea. He managed to make good points to support his surprising proposal and unexpectedly won over the gerousia and the people."
• Demonstrates that, as Plutarch and Xenophon told us, the Gerousia have incredible power over decision making, their respect in Sparta gives them political clout and influence - Hetoimaridas alone was able to sway the entire government against war

Pausanias - Regent

• Pausanias served as regent in Sparta at the end of the Persian Wars, since Leonidas' son, Pleistarchus, was too young to rule
• After winning a stunning victory at Plataea in 479 BC, Pausanuas directed the Greek forces in Asia Minor as supreme commander over the Hellenic League
• His heavy-handed approach would lose Sparta her command over the Greeks
• This example can be used to demonstrate the behaviour of Spartan leaders whilst on campaign, as well as the political interplay between the Ephors and the royal family

Activity

Plutarch

Thucydides

• According to both writers what accusations were made against Pausanias in his role as leader of the Greeks following Plataea?
• Plutarch:
• Pausanias was charged with misconduct, treating the other Greeks harshly
• The Spartans were so concerned about Pausanias' behaviour that they stopped sending out other generals - they preferred to have citizens who were self-controlled and had "traditional values" rather than "rule all of Greece"
• Thucydides
• Pausanias' harsh behaviour towards other Greeks had caused offence
• Sending secret messages to Xerxes - medising - he proposed a marriage to Xerxes' daughter and he offered to bring Sparta and all of Greece under his control - and he himself wanted to become the ruler of Hellas
• Pausanias worked with the Helots - he offered them full citizenship and their freedom if they helped him in a coup against the Spartan government
• Dressed like a Persian, attended Persian banquets, walked around with a Persian bodyguard
• Tried to have his own name inscribed on the Serpent Column at Delphi  
• How was Pausanias eventually punished? What does this incident reveal about the power relation between the ephors and the royal family?
• Thucydides
• One of the messengers to Xerxes, fearing for his life, relayed the message to the Ephors
• Some of the Helots also informed the Ephors of Pausanias' intentions
• Even then the Ephors were skeptical - "this was in accordance with their usual practice" "to never act hastily in the case of a Spartan citizen" "except on the basis of absolutely cast-iron evidence" - suggests the Ephors are thorough and don't jump to conclusions when making decisions, restrained in their power
• Pausanias was recalled to Sparta and thrown in prison ("Ephors have the power to imprison the king") but he was confident he could secure his release by bribery - shows there was some corruption within the government
• Ephors decide to convict Pausanias they will need a confession from Pausanias himself
• They laid a trap for Pausanias, he was invited by one of the messengers to a house that had a specially designed secret room, and the Ephors were hidden inside listening for the confession
• Pausanias goes to the meeting, asks about Xerxes' letters and incriminates himself
• The Ephors, with the ecidence, planned to arrest Pausanias near the Agora - shows their power?
• Reminds the other Spartans of the penalty for treason and avoids him escaping. Pausanias was already unpopular and so this gives the Spartans relief/satisfaction by seeing him come to justice, gives Pausanias a right to a fair trial, avoids accusations they were unfair, helps the Spartans understand why he was arrested
• However, when the Ephors plan to arrest him Pausanias realizes what is about to happen (maybe one of the Ephors gave him a secret signal?) and he attempted to run to the Temple of Athena in the centre of the city
• Pausanias tried to seek sanctuary on sacred ground, but the Ephors instead blocked the door
• He was starved out, and then just as he died he was dragged on the Temple steps - shows the Spartans do not questions the Ephors' decisions once they have been made

Archidamus - King: Stheneleidas - Ephor

• King Archidamus II reigned from approximately 476 to 427 BC, in the period after the Persian Wars during Athens' rise to power
• In 432 BC Sparta called a conference of her allies to discuss the growing hostilities between Athens and the Peloponnesian League
• During this debate (the Debate at Sparta) Archidamus and one of the Ephors, Stheneleidas discuss the prospect of a war with Athens in front of the Spartan assembly, and give their opinion on why war should/should not be declared
• This example can be used as a case-study to show how the Spartan assembly, kings and Ephors interacted with each other in practice

Activity

Thucydides

• What is the significance of Stheneleidas' actions during this debate? What does it reveal about the power and influence of the Ephors within the Spartan government?
• "Spartans, cast your vote for the honour of Sparta and for war" - Stheneleidas
• He is addressing the assembly
• shows that they have the final say, NOT the king.
• Stheneleidas then puts the vote to the assembly - they voted by acclamation but the Ephors could not decide which shout was the loudest
• this suggests the opinion among the Spartans was divided
• Stheneleidas then made the Spartans divide themselves into two groups - yes and not - the majority went to the opinion that the treaty had been broken "he wanted them to show their opinions openly and make them more enthusiastic for war"
• The Ephor had taken away the anonymity of the voters by removing acclamation and so the assembly votes for what they imagine would be the most socially-acceptable (they don't want to be seen as cowards)
• Thucydides confirms they vote "by acclamation, not voting"
• confirms that acclamation was used as the primart method of voting, and that acclamation provided anonymity. This incident reveals that the Spartan method of voting and decision making can be easily manipulated
• Shows us that the Assembly has more of a say over Spartan policy than we might imagine, but the speakers and the options presented to the Spartan are very limited - only the governmental bodies (Ephors, Kings, Gerousia) actually propose legislation. Confirms what Plutarch siad

Agis II - King

• Agis II ruled from 427 - 401 BC, taking over from his father Archidamus
• As king he largely conducted the Peloponnesian War with Athens, since his co-regent Pausanias was only very young
• In 418 BC he led the Spartans to victory at Mantinea, considered one of Sparta's greatest victories
• In c 412 BC he occupied Decelea in northern Attica on the advice of Alcibiades, conducting the war for years from this defensive position and contributing to Athens' defeat
• Agis can be used as a case-study to demonstrate the conduct/power of the kings on campaign, as well as the relation between the Ephors/Spartans and their kings

Activity

Thucydides - Agis Punished before Mantinea

• What punishments were enacted against Agis? What does this reveal about the power of the kings within Sparta?
• Ephors suggested at first to punish Agis by fining him 10,000 drachmae and pulling down his house
• Agis promises he will redeem himself by committing noble acts in the field next time
• Ephors change their mind on the first punishments, but they force Agus to be accompanied by 10 Spartans of the officer class, who will act as his advisors and "without their authority he was unable to take the army out of Sparta"
• Thucydides says this was a completely novel reform to the kingship
• Reinforces how much power the Ephors had
• A lack of trust in Agis as king is revealed
• The king does obey the orders of the Ephors
• Shows Ephorate oversaw the king's conduct on campaign, as other sources described
• Shows the Ephorate can change the constitutional powers of the kings when needed

Thucydides - Agis conducting the war from Decelea

• What does Thucydides demonstrate about the power the kings held whilst on campaign?
• "Indeed it would be true to say that the allies paid more attention to him [Agis] than the government in Sparta, since he had his army with him and could make himself felt wherever he went"
• Agis WAS the government in Sparta for a timebeing
• "he had the power to send troops wherever he wished, to raise fresh forces, to levy money"
• Agis has realised that whilst he remains in the field he is unaccountable to the Ephors
• Proves to us what we already knew - the kings have absolute authority on campaign, but are closely scrutinised and can be punished when they return home
• Agis has exploited this loophole

Brasidas - Ephor

• Brasidas was a general through the first phases of the Peloponnesian War (431-421 BC)
• His first achievement was to rescue the Perioikic town of Methone, for which he earned a laurel wreath in Sparta
• The following year he was elected as eponymous Ephor in Sparta, likely due to his popularity among the younger Spartans
• His campaign to Thrace in 424 BC marked a turning point in the war, and his unorthodox tactics and bold character brought him great renown throughout the Greek world
• He was honoured for his achievements at Amphipolis (where he died) by being buried within the city with full honours, named a new founder of the city and celebrated with annual festivities
• In Sparta, he was honoured with annual athletic contests and a cenotaph was erected in his honour next to Leonidas and Pausanias
• Brasidas can be used to demonstrate an ideal Spartan general, and the potential career path of an exceptional Spartan

Activity

Thucydides

Plutarch

• How does Brasidas' conduct differ with other Spartan commanders who came into contact with non-Spartans in the field?
• Thucydides
• Brasidas is known to be "upright and moderate" to thos ewho are non-Spartan gaining an "excellent reputation" which is different to the rest of the Spartans as he is regarded the "first" to sent out of his way
• The "gallantry of Brasidas" was one of the key factors in creating a "pro-Spartan" feeling among Athens' allies - and his excellent reputation left behind a conviction that "the rest of them were like him"
• Plutarch
• With the death of Brasidas, many non-Spartans went to go see his mother Argileonis. They themselves praise him with the comment that "no one else was like him", this showing that the other Spartans were not considered to be held on the same regard as him. His mother however disagrees with the claim that "Sparta has many better men than he"

Lysander - Mothakes

• Lysander was a Mothakes - though a Spartan he was not brought up in his father's household
• However, he overcame the social restrictions and eventually became Nauarchos (admiral) during the closing stages of the Peloponnesian War
• His victory at Aegospotami in 405 BC ended the war, and brought Lysander great renown both in Sparta and the wider Greek world
• Lysander is another example of the potential power of non-royal Spartans, particularly within the military

Activity

Plutarch

• How did Lysander retain his control as Nauarchos despite Spartan law?
• After his replacement as general, his successor Callicratides died in combat
• Sparta's allies then zealously asked Sparta for his recal. Lysander had planted some grand notions in their heads "the idea of aristocratic houses o 10, and counter-revolutionary bodies they would set up" and that these aristocratic clubs would rule in place of the democracies - "claimed that as soon as the Athenians were subdued they could overthrow the government and become absolute rulers in their own countries"
• To get around this, the Spartans sent out another admiral to stand as Naurachos and Lysander would remain second in command, but in reality he would take over as leader
• What differences in character can be seen between Lysander and Callicratides, his replacement?
• Callicratides is honoured by Plutarch as an upright and virtuous general, but as a slightly more old-fashioned and austere Spartan
• "They admired his virtue, much as they might do the beauty of some hero's statue, but they missed Lysander's whole-hearted support and looked in vain for the latter's keen partiality for the interest of his own friends"
• "Lysander by comparison with Callicratides seemed an equivocal and unprincipled character, and a man who disguised most of his actions in war with varius forms of deceit"
• "as long as Lysander remained in authority their extravagant hopes would be fulfilled"
• "which had a certain Doric simplicity and candour about it"
• How does Brasidas' conduct differ with other Spartan commanders who came into contact with non-Spartans in the field?

Thucydides

• How does Brasidas' conduct differ with other Spartan commanders who came into contact with non-Spartans in the field
• Thucydides
• Brasidas is known to be 'upright and moderate' to those who are non-Spartan gaining an 'excellent reputation' which is different to the resto of the Spartans as he is regarded the 'first' to sent out of his way
• The 'gallantry of Brasidas' was one of the key factors in creating a "pro-Spartan" feeling among Athens' allies - and his excellent reputation left behind a conviction that "the rest of them were like him"

The Apella/Assembly

 Membership

• This was the most democratic organ of the Spartan government
• All adult male Spartiartes over thirty were eligible to sit in the assembly
• Those who had lost their citizenship rights could not attend

Functions

• They met once a month at the full moon, in the open air, under the chairmanship of the Ephor
• Unlike the Athenian assembly, the Spartan assembly did not debate, discuss or amend proposals
• The members listened to a proposal made by the Gerousia, delivered by the presiding Ephor
• They would them either vote for or against the proposal

Spartan Ideal

• A Spartan was trained to obey and conform - NOT to take sides In public debates
• Lycurgus - was said to have outlawed rhetoric teachers
• This ethos is said to have given rise to the term Laconic - a word used to describe someone who talks very little

Limitations

• There was one undemocratic aspect of the Apella
• If the Ephors disapproved of a motion passed by the assembly they could refuse to proclaim it

Source Activity

Plutarch

• The Apella met in the open "for in his opinion these were not conducive to sound deliberations, but were harmful, they made them silly and gave them mindless notions" ' suggests Lycurgus was concerned that the assembly could be easily distracted and not very intelligent ' they lack importance as a result - and also suggests they were not important because they had no government building to meet in. Describing them as being childish, and saying it's pointless for them to meet
• "if the people should make a crooked choice, the elders and kings should set it aside" - suggests the assembly lack the power of the other government because the choice seems to be made for them by the other positions in government
• "Lycurgus permitted no-one else to make a proposal except the the kings and elders, and the authority to decide upon did matter to the people" - suggests they do have some importance as they do have the final say in decision making, but because they cannot propose laws themselves they lack the decision making capabilities that assemblies in other states would have. Shows the lack of trust that Lycurgus placed with the assembly
• After Lycurgus the assembly began to change and annul laws, so the kings Polydorus and Theopompus supplemented the Rhetra with this addition that the elders and kinds could set aside the decision of the assembly - suggesting they used to have more power under the Lycurgan reform but that power was diminished - "the people will vote with a straight rhetra"
• They met under the full moon, which isn't a regular occurence
• The fact that Lycurgus tries to avoid them being distracted suggests their views and decisions may be more important than the sources are suggesting
• Quotes Aristotle as a source
• Quotes Tyrtaeus on the Spartan Rhetra - Spartan source around the time of Lycurgus' reforms
• Increases the value of Plutarch's account because he is using contemporary sources to support his points - including a Spartan source
• He is using Aristotle's critical account - Plutarch not being a contemporary source means his views are shaped by the earlier writings

Spartan Government: The Gerousia: Body of Elders

 Origins

• The Gerousia was the oligarchic element of the constitution as written in the Politeia of the Spartans by Xenophon
• According to Plutarch, it came as part of Lycurgus' attempt to safeguard the state by 'allaying and qualifying the fiery genius of the royal office'
• It was more likely the result of a conflict between the kings and nobles about the time of the first Messenian War

Membership

• There were 28 members plus the 2 kings (30 in total)
• Membership was restricted to Spartans over sixty years of age, who were therefore no longer liable for military service
• It was a body of elders who held their office for life - and it was regarded as a reward for merit

Highly Honoured Position

• Members were elected by the Spartiates in the assembly
• It is not certain whether the candidates were from noble families or whether 'the best families' mentioned by Aristotle meant those of wealth and renown
• Membership of the council was highly honourable and a much sought-after office
• Plutarch states that they had to be 'the best and most deserving men past sixty years old'

Selection Process

• Selection was done by acclamation (shouting and clapping) and Plutarch describes in some detail the procedures for this
• The candidates were brought in one by one - their order of appearance being decided by lot
• In an adjoining room, selected people listened to the loudness of the shouting for each candidate
• The results were recorded in order
• Once the successful candidate was declared, he was taken in triumphant procession around the city to all the temples - he attended a special banquet and he was honoured in verse and song
• Aristotle disapproved of this method and called it 'childish'

Functions: Preparing Bills

• The Gerousia was a probouleutic body - this meant it prepared and deliberated on bills to be presented to assembly for voting
• If it was not happy with the assembly's vote on an issue it could decline to accept it, by adjourning - in which case the bill would not be passed

Functions: Criminal Court

• The gerontes (members of the gerousia), kings and ephors acted as a court of justice for criminal cases
• They tried cases of murder and treason, and imposed penalties ranging from death to banishment and fines
• This select body of elders exerted a great influence in political affairs

Source Activity

Aristotle

Plutarch

Xenophon

• List the functions of the Gerousia that the sources discuss
• What does each source state about the election process of the Gerontes?
• What qualities did the members of the Gerousia have according to each source? What position do the sources imply they had within Spartan government/society? (i.e are they respected?)
• Plutarch
• Roles/Responsibilities
• "with control over death and loss of citizen rights, and the most important matters generally"
• "sweeping authority in the state"
• Election Process
• Assembly was gathered to vote, some men were placed in a room as independent observers, candidates are selected by lot and presented before the assembly who cheer their preferred candidate, the observers listen to the shouts and note which they think is the loudest, and the loudest shout is the winner - trying to ensure anonymity among the candidates, and the election is fair
• After the candidate is selected he is paraded to all the sanctuaries of the gods followed bt young men and women who sang their praise. They were then taken to their mess and given double portions as a sign of the city's respect. The Gerousia member would then gift his extra portion to the woman who he held in the highest esteem. presenting it as a mark of distinction - she is then also praised by the women
• Qualities of the Gerousia, position in Sparta
• Chosen "not as the swiftest of swift, or the strongest of the strong, but the best and wisest of the good and wise" - military prowess is no longer relevant, but intelligence and character are prized above all
• "merits regarded as most outstanding"
• "lifelong reward for his merits"
• Xenophon
• Roles/Responsibilites
• "supreme judges in capitol cases in which they produce more respect for old age" - punished those who commit fraud, theft or harm towards those in their communities
• Election
• "by placing the election towards the end of life he ensured that they continued to exercise virtue into old age"
• "he did not take into account physical infirmity or poverty"
• "The contest of the Gerousia is correctly regarded as the most important a man can enter" - because the contest is about "nobility of character" rather than physical strength
• Aristotle
• Roles/Responsibilities
• "lifelong supreme power to decide important cases"
• "exempt from scrutiny even from the ephors" - Aristotle condemns this unaccountability
• Election Process
• "the way in which the choice is made is childish" - referring to acclamation (the shouting and clapping)
• Qualities/Characteristics
• "It is known that even the lawgiver himself has no confidence in them as good men"
• He suggests they are corrupt because they are open to "bribes" and "favouritism"
• It is questionable whether people so advanced in old age should be given lifelong appointments "the mind grows old no less than the body"
• Evaluation: The soures are vague about the specifics of their power. Why?
• Because political bodies like the Gerousia were quite common in the Greek world. The sources do not feel the need to describe their power in detail

Spartan Government System: The Ephorate

 Origins

• The Ephorate was a board of five ephors who were the chief magistrates and administrative officials in Sparta
• The word 'Ephor' means 'overseer'
• The origin of the office is unknown and controversy on the subject has continued among historians, who have put forward several theories

Historian Theories

• The ephors were originally priests and astrologers
• The ephors were created by the kings to carry on government while they were away at war
• The ephors were originally connected with the five villages and may have been chiefs who became advisers to the kings

Power in the 7th Century (BC)

• It was not until the 7th century that the ephorate won their great political power
• This slowly increased until they had taken over the main powers of the kings
• They had formidable powers as representatives of the people

Election Process

• Any Spartan over the age of thirty could stand for the office
• Elected by the assembly annually by acclamation - exchanging oaths with the king each month
• Took office at the full moon - after the autumnal equinox
• Upon appointment they would issue a proclamation to all citizens to shave their moustaches and obey the laws

Monthly Oaths

• The monthly oath was taken to uphold the office of the kings as long as they behaved in accordance with the laws
• They shared some of the powers with the kings and they were also empowered to depose them

Main Functions: Represented the Principle of Law

• The Ephorate had eight main functions:
• Checks on the kings (overseers)
• Dealing with foreign policy
• Dealing with army
• Control over magistrates
• Supervision over training
• Krypteia
• Dealings with the Gerousia (apparently 7 and 8)

No.1 - Checks on the kings

• As representatives of the people and a democratic element they were expected to:
• Keep a check on the kings - at home and abroad accompanying them on campaign
• Summon the kings before them for misdemeanours

No.2 Foreign Powers

• They dealt with foreign embassies
• According to Xenophon - before foreign representatives could enter Sparta they had to halt at the border and wait the permission of the ephors
• Once in Sparta, envoys made their proposals or demands to the ephors - who would then decide of they should go before the assembly

No.3 Dealing with the Army

• If war was declared, the ephors decided which age classes should go
• They issued orders mobilising the army
• They gave instructions to the generals and recalled them if they failed

No.4 Controlling Magistrates

• Their power over lesser magistrates was great
• At the end of a magistrate's year in office he gave an account of himself to the ephors - who decided if any punishment was in order

No.5 Supervised Training

• Had total control over training and discipline of the young
• Any misconduct was reported to the ephors and Spartan youths were given a regular physical examination
• The ephors also chose the three captains of the elite corps of the Spartan army

No.6 Krypteia

• The Krypteia (secret police organisation) was under orders from the ephors
• It has been portrayed as a tyrannical and vicious weapon - used to murder helots indiscriminately
• Plutarch and Aristotle both make mention of the role played by the Krypteia and the removal of the helot population
• This was a unique feature to Sparta, never adopted by other Greek States

Plutarch and the Krypteia

"The magistrates dispatched privately some of the ablest of the young men into the country from time to time armed only with their daggers... in the daytime they hid in out-of-the-way places and there law close, but in the night issued out into the highways, and killed all the helots they could light upon"

Aristotle and the Krypteia

"Upon entering office the ephors used to declare war on the helots - so that they could be massacred without offending the gods"

- In other words declaring them public enemies allowed them to be killed with impunity

Krypteia Membership

• More probably a body of eighteen to twenty year old youths - at the disposal of the ephors for special service
• Membership formed part of the training of the youths in that they:
• Served for two years
• Provided a useful method for removing undesirables - specifically helots

No 7&8 - Dealing with the Gerousia

• The ephors summoned and presided over sessions of the Gerousia and the Assembly and initiated legislation
• With the Gerousia - they acted as a court of criminal justice and carried out punishments
• They were criminal judges in cases involving perioikoi and they constituted the supreme civil court

Limitations of the Ephorate

• Answerable to the public body
• Despite the ephors' great powers - they were subject to certain restrictions
• They were elected for one year only
• When they became private citizens once again they could be called to account for their actions in an audit by their successor
• They could not be re-elected
• Thus, they were both democratic and oligarchic

Eponymous Nature

• One Ephor was always "eponymous" - his name was used at Sparta to signify the year. E.g: Thucydides treats the treaty of 421BC as follows:
• "This peace shall take beginning from the 24th of the month Artemisium, Pleistolas being ephor at Sparta, and the 5th of Elaphebolium, after the acount of Athens. Alcaeus being archon" 5.19

Activity

Xenophon, 4, 8, 11, 13, 15

Aristotle, "Ephors"

Plutarch, Lycurgus, 7

• Xenophon
• "Like tyrants or presidents (referees) at the games they punish an offender as soon as the offence is detected" - he uses the word tyrant but not in a negative sense. He is comparing them to referees at a game, ensuring the game is fair
• They call up the age groups for campaign
• They have the "right to inflict punishments at will", to "require immediate payment of fines" and "to depose magistrates during their term of office"
• They had to be present at any sacrifices to Zeus - they take no part unless the king invites them
• They were the only ones to sit when the kings were in attendance and took a monthly oath to the city of Sparta alongside the kings - that the ephors swear to allow the kings to rule, so long as the kings abide by the rules
• "Needless to say by watching each man's conduct they exercise a restraining hand on all"
• The Spartans realised that obedience is vital to the city, in the army and the home - when called upon by the ephors the Spartans would run
• During the education process any boys who fought amongst themselves would have to appear before the ephors
• Ephors would routinely inspect the boys to check their progress
• Attended meetings of the Gerousia
• They picked the hippegretai, who then chose 100 men themselves, and once approved they became the Hippeis - the king's bodyguard
• Aristotle
• "excessive, virtually that of a tyrant"
• "Even the Spartan Kings were forced to curry favour from them, and this has caused further damage to the constitution, for an aristocracy turned into a democracy"
• Democratic in the sense that any Spartan over the age of 30 can stand for the ephorate, and are voted in by the people
• Tyrannical - because they overstep the jurisdiction assigned to them
• Because they are selected from among the entire population they are "open to bribes"
• "Independently control most of the important business"
• The ephor being open to the people "kept them quiet" and "whether this is due to the lawgiver or good fortune is unclear, but suits the circumstances very well"
• Two ephors accompanied the kings on campaign - "the king's greatest enemy"
• "Supreme power of jurisdiction"
• Plutarch
• After Lycurgus' reforms, the Spartans realised that Oligarchy was the most dominant form of government in Sparta and imposed the ephorate as a curb on the undiluted oligarchy
• Plutarch implies that the ephorate is a democratic process
• Introduced 130 years after Lycurgus during the reign on Theopompus
• How and why do Xenophon and Aristotle differ in their opinions of the Ephorate
• Both say essentially the same thing about the Ephors. Both call them tyrants and both say the Ephors had incredible sway and influence over Spartan policy
• Xenophon
• Describes the Ephorate in a positive light ("they had a restraining hand over all" and they were like referees at the Olympics calling out any misgivings)
• Xenophon lived and wrote at the end of the Peloponnesian War in the late 5th century BC
• Many of Athens; intellectuals at this time were laconophiles
• On his campaigns as a mercenary commander, Xenophon endeared himself to the Spartan King Agesilaus and later moved to Olympia in the Peloponnese to serve as a Spartan ambassador
• There is strong evidence to suggest that his sons went through the agoge
• Aristotle
• Says their power was excessive. They were open to corruption and bribery and they gave the common people an undue influence over political matters
• Aristotle was not an Athenian, but he moved to Athens and studied under Plato in the 4th Century BC
• At this stage, Sparta had crumbled under internal disorders, as well as a succession of military defeats
• The rose-tinted view of Sparta had been shattered and Aristotle made a clear break from his intellectual predecessors by viewing Sparta through a critical lens