Spartan Government in Practice

Hetoemaridas - Gerousia

• There are almost no examples of individual Gerousia members directing decisions within Sparta, largely due to the external nature of our sources
• However, one such example does exist - Hetoemaridas
• He served in the period after the Persian Wars, when Sparta had lost control over the sea to Athens
• This example can be used to demonstrate the importance of the Gerousia and Geronted within the Spartan government

Activity

• What does this incident suggest about the power and influence of the Gerousia within Spartan society
• Diodorus
• A meeting of the gerousia was held at which they discussed war against the Athenians over the hegemony at sea. Similarly, when a meeting of the general assembly was held, the younger men and most of the others were very keen to recover the hegemony, thinking that if they could do so, they would benefit from great wealth - we were told by Herodotus that the kings had the final say over war and that "no one" questions their decisions - is Herodotus wrong? Or did the Kings originally have that power and then it was taken away from them in 5th century due to issues over corruption? (Note, many of the kings in the early 5th century BC - Cleomenes, Demaratus, Pleistoanax, Pausanias, were all indicted on corruption charges)
• Hetoimaridas was "a descendant of Herakles, who was well thought of by his fellow citizens for his character, took it upon himself to suggest that they allow the Athenians to maintain the hegemony, since it would not be in Sparta's interests to fight over the sea. He managed to make good points to support his surprising proposal and unexpectedly won over the gerousia and the people."
• Demonstrates that, as Plutarch and Xenophon told us, the Gerousia have incredible power over decision making, their respect in Sparta gives them political clout and influence - Hetoimaridas alone was able to sway the entire government against war

Pausanias - Regent

• Pausanias served as regent in Sparta at the end of the Persian Wars, since Leonidas' son, Pleistarchus, was too young to rule
• After winning a stunning victory at Plataea in 479 BC, Pausanuas directed the Greek forces in Asia Minor as supreme commander over the Hellenic League
• His heavy-handed approach would lose Sparta her command over the Greeks
• This example can be used to demonstrate the behaviour of Spartan leaders whilst on campaign, as well as the political interplay between the Ephors and the royal family

Activity

Plutarch

Thucydides

• According to both writers what accusations were made against Pausanias in his role as leader of the Greeks following Plataea?
• Plutarch:
• Pausanias was charged with misconduct, treating the other Greeks harshly
• The Spartans were so concerned about Pausanias' behaviour that they stopped sending out other generals - they preferred to have citizens who were self-controlled and had "traditional values" rather than "rule all of Greece"
• Thucydides
• Pausanias' harsh behaviour towards other Greeks had caused offence
• Sending secret messages to Xerxes - medising - he proposed a marriage to Xerxes' daughter and he offered to bring Sparta and all of Greece under his control - and he himself wanted to become the ruler of Hellas
• Pausanias worked with the Helots - he offered them full citizenship and their freedom if they helped him in a coup against the Spartan government
• Dressed like a Persian, attended Persian banquets, walked around with a Persian bodyguard
• Tried to have his own name inscribed on the Serpent Column at Delphi  
• How was Pausanias eventually punished? What does this incident reveal about the power relation between the ephors and the royal family?
• Thucydides
• One of the messengers to Xerxes, fearing for his life, relayed the message to the Ephors
• Some of the Helots also informed the Ephors of Pausanias' intentions
• Even then the Ephors were skeptical - "this was in accordance with their usual practice" "to never act hastily in the case of a Spartan citizen" "except on the basis of absolutely cast-iron evidence" - suggests the Ephors are thorough and don't jump to conclusions when making decisions, restrained in their power
• Pausanias was recalled to Sparta and thrown in prison ("Ephors have the power to imprison the king") but he was confident he could secure his release by bribery - shows there was some corruption within the government
• Ephors decide to convict Pausanias they will need a confession from Pausanias himself
• They laid a trap for Pausanias, he was invited by one of the messengers to a house that had a specially designed secret room, and the Ephors were hidden inside listening for the confession
• Pausanias goes to the meeting, asks about Xerxes' letters and incriminates himself
• The Ephors, with the ecidence, planned to arrest Pausanias near the Agora - shows their power?
• Reminds the other Spartans of the penalty for treason and avoids him escaping. Pausanias was already unpopular and so this gives the Spartans relief/satisfaction by seeing him come to justice, gives Pausanias a right to a fair trial, avoids accusations they were unfair, helps the Spartans understand why he was arrested
• However, when the Ephors plan to arrest him Pausanias realizes what is about to happen (maybe one of the Ephors gave him a secret signal?) and he attempted to run to the Temple of Athena in the centre of the city
• Pausanias tried to seek sanctuary on sacred ground, but the Ephors instead blocked the door
• He was starved out, and then just as he died he was dragged on the Temple steps - shows the Spartans do not questions the Ephors' decisions once they have been made

Archidamus - King: Stheneleidas - Ephor

• King Archidamus II reigned from approximately 476 to 427 BC, in the period after the Persian Wars during Athens' rise to power
• In 432 BC Sparta called a conference of her allies to discuss the growing hostilities between Athens and the Peloponnesian League
• During this debate (the Debate at Sparta) Archidamus and one of the Ephors, Stheneleidas discuss the prospect of a war with Athens in front of the Spartan assembly, and give their opinion on why war should/should not be declared
• This example can be used as a case-study to show how the Spartan assembly, kings and Ephors interacted with each other in practice

Activity

Thucydides

• What is the significance of Stheneleidas' actions during this debate? What does it reveal about the power and influence of the Ephors within the Spartan government?
• "Spartans, cast your vote for the honour of Sparta and for war" - Stheneleidas
• He is addressing the assembly
• shows that they have the final say, NOT the king.
• Stheneleidas then puts the vote to the assembly - they voted by acclamation but the Ephors could not decide which shout was the loudest
• this suggests the opinion among the Spartans was divided
• Stheneleidas then made the Spartans divide themselves into two groups - yes and not - the majority went to the opinion that the treaty had been broken "he wanted them to show their opinions openly and make them more enthusiastic for war"
• The Ephor had taken away the anonymity of the voters by removing acclamation and so the assembly votes for what they imagine would be the most socially-acceptable (they don't want to be seen as cowards)
• Thucydides confirms they vote "by acclamation, not voting"
• confirms that acclamation was used as the primart method of voting, and that acclamation provided anonymity. This incident reveals that the Spartan method of voting and decision making can be easily manipulated
• Shows us that the Assembly has more of a say over Spartan policy than we might imagine, but the speakers and the options presented to the Spartan are very limited - only the governmental bodies (Ephors, Kings, Gerousia) actually propose legislation. Confirms what Plutarch siad

Agis II - King

• Agis II ruled from 427 - 401 BC, taking over from his father Archidamus
• As king he largely conducted the Peloponnesian War with Athens, since his co-regent Pausanias was only very young
• In 418 BC he led the Spartans to victory at Mantinea, considered one of Sparta's greatest victories
• In c 412 BC he occupied Decelea in northern Attica on the advice of Alcibiades, conducting the war for years from this defensive position and contributing to Athens' defeat
• Agis can be used as a case-study to demonstrate the conduct/power of the kings on campaign, as well as the relation between the Ephors/Spartans and their kings

Activity

Thucydides - Agis Punished before Mantinea

• What punishments were enacted against Agis? What does this reveal about the power of the kings within Sparta?
• Ephors suggested at first to punish Agis by fining him 10,000 drachmae and pulling down his house
• Agis promises he will redeem himself by committing noble acts in the field next time
• Ephors change their mind on the first punishments, but they force Agus to be accompanied by 10 Spartans of the officer class, who will act as his advisors and "without their authority he was unable to take the army out of Sparta"
• Thucydides says this was a completely novel reform to the kingship
• Reinforces how much power the Ephors had
• A lack of trust in Agis as king is revealed
• The king does obey the orders of the Ephors
• Shows Ephorate oversaw the king's conduct on campaign, as other sources described
• Shows the Ephorate can change the constitutional powers of the kings when needed

Thucydides - Agis conducting the war from Decelea

• What does Thucydides demonstrate about the power the kings held whilst on campaign?
• "Indeed it would be true to say that the allies paid more attention to him [Agis] than the government in Sparta, since he had his army with him and could make himself felt wherever he went"
• Agis WAS the government in Sparta for a timebeing
• "he had the power to send troops wherever he wished, to raise fresh forces, to levy money"
• Agis has realised that whilst he remains in the field he is unaccountable to the Ephors
• Proves to us what we already knew - the kings have absolute authority on campaign, but are closely scrutinised and can be punished when they return home
• Agis has exploited this loophole

Brasidas - Ephor

• Brasidas was a general through the first phases of the Peloponnesian War (431-421 BC)
• His first achievement was to rescue the Perioikic town of Methone, for which he earned a laurel wreath in Sparta
• The following year he was elected as eponymous Ephor in Sparta, likely due to his popularity among the younger Spartans
• His campaign to Thrace in 424 BC marked a turning point in the war, and his unorthodox tactics and bold character brought him great renown throughout the Greek world
• He was honoured for his achievements at Amphipolis (where he died) by being buried within the city with full honours, named a new founder of the city and celebrated with annual festivities
• In Sparta, he was honoured with annual athletic contests and a cenotaph was erected in his honour next to Leonidas and Pausanias
• Brasidas can be used to demonstrate an ideal Spartan general, and the potential career path of an exceptional Spartan

Activity

Thucydides

Plutarch

• How does Brasidas' conduct differ with other Spartan commanders who came into contact with non-Spartans in the field?
• Thucydides
• Brasidas is known to be "upright and moderate" to thos ewho are non-Spartan gaining an "excellent reputation" which is different to the rest of the Spartans as he is regarded the "first" to sent out of his way
• The "gallantry of Brasidas" was one of the key factors in creating a "pro-Spartan" feeling among Athens' allies - and his excellent reputation left behind a conviction that "the rest of them were like him"
• Plutarch
• With the death of Brasidas, many non-Spartans went to go see his mother Argileonis. They themselves praise him with the comment that "no one else was like him", this showing that the other Spartans were not considered to be held on the same regard as him. His mother however disagrees with the claim that "Sparta has many better men than he"

Lysander - Mothakes

• Lysander was a Mothakes - though a Spartan he was not brought up in his father's household
• However, he overcame the social restrictions and eventually became Nauarchos (admiral) during the closing stages of the Peloponnesian War
• His victory at Aegospotami in 405 BC ended the war, and brought Lysander great renown both in Sparta and the wider Greek world
• Lysander is another example of the potential power of non-royal Spartans, particularly within the military

Activity

Plutarch

• How did Lysander retain his control as Nauarchos despite Spartan law?
• After his replacement as general, his successor Callicratides died in combat
• Sparta's allies then zealously asked Sparta for his recal. Lysander had planted some grand notions in their heads "the idea of aristocratic houses o 10, and counter-revolutionary bodies they would set up" and that these aristocratic clubs would rule in place of the democracies - "claimed that as soon as the Athenians were subdued they could overthrow the government and become absolute rulers in their own countries"
• To get around this, the Spartans sent out another admiral to stand as Naurachos and Lysander would remain second in command, but in reality he would take over as leader
• What differences in character can be seen between Lysander and Callicratides, his replacement?
• Callicratides is honoured by Plutarch as an upright and virtuous general, but as a slightly more old-fashioned and austere Spartan
• "They admired his virtue, much as they might do the beauty of some hero's statue, but they missed Lysander's whole-hearted support and looked in vain for the latter's keen partiality for the interest of his own friends"
• "Lysander by comparison with Callicratides seemed an equivocal and unprincipled character, and a man who disguised most of his actions in war with varius forms of deceit"
• "as long as Lysander remained in authority their extravagant hopes would be fulfilled"
• "which had a certain Doric simplicity and candour about it"
• How does Brasidas' conduct differ with other Spartan commanders who came into contact with non-Spartans in the field?

Thucydides

• How does Brasidas' conduct differ with other Spartan commanders who came into contact with non-Spartans in the field
• Thucydides
• Brasidas is known to be 'upright and moderate' to those who are non-Spartan gaining an 'excellent reputation' which is different to the resto of the Spartans as he is regarded the 'first' to sent out of his way
• The 'gallantry of Brasidas' was one of the key factors in creating a "pro-Spartan" feeling among Athens' allies - and his excellent reputation left behind a conviction that "the rest of them were like him"

The Apella/Assembly

 Membership

• This was the most democratic organ of the Spartan government
• All adult male Spartiartes over thirty were eligible to sit in the assembly
• Those who had lost their citizenship rights could not attend

Functions

• They met once a month at the full moon, in the open air, under the chairmanship of the Ephor
• Unlike the Athenian assembly, the Spartan assembly did not debate, discuss or amend proposals
• The members listened to a proposal made by the Gerousia, delivered by the presiding Ephor
• They would them either vote for or against the proposal

Spartan Ideal

• A Spartan was trained to obey and conform - NOT to take sides In public debates
• Lycurgus - was said to have outlawed rhetoric teachers
• This ethos is said to have given rise to the term Laconic - a word used to describe someone who talks very little

Limitations

• There was one undemocratic aspect of the Apella
• If the Ephors disapproved of a motion passed by the assembly they could refuse to proclaim it

Source Activity

Plutarch

• The Apella met in the open "for in his opinion these were not conducive to sound deliberations, but were harmful, they made them silly and gave them mindless notions" ' suggests Lycurgus was concerned that the assembly could be easily distracted and not very intelligent ' they lack importance as a result - and also suggests they were not important because they had no government building to meet in. Describing them as being childish, and saying it's pointless for them to meet
• "if the people should make a crooked choice, the elders and kings should set it aside" - suggests the assembly lack the power of the other government because the choice seems to be made for them by the other positions in government
• "Lycurgus permitted no-one else to make a proposal except the the kings and elders, and the authority to decide upon did matter to the people" - suggests they do have some importance as they do have the final say in decision making, but because they cannot propose laws themselves they lack the decision making capabilities that assemblies in other states would have. Shows the lack of trust that Lycurgus placed with the assembly
• After Lycurgus the assembly began to change and annul laws, so the kings Polydorus and Theopompus supplemented the Rhetra with this addition that the elders and kinds could set aside the decision of the assembly - suggesting they used to have more power under the Lycurgan reform but that power was diminished - "the people will vote with a straight rhetra"
• They met under the full moon, which isn't a regular occurence
• The fact that Lycurgus tries to avoid them being distracted suggests their views and decisions may be more important than the sources are suggesting
• Quotes Aristotle as a source
• Quotes Tyrtaeus on the Spartan Rhetra - Spartan source around the time of Lycurgus' reforms
• Increases the value of Plutarch's account because he is using contemporary sources to support his points - including a Spartan source
• He is using Aristotle's critical account - Plutarch not being a contemporary source means his views are shaped by the earlier writings