Helots and Perioikoi: The Effect on Sparta

 Oliganthropia = a decline of population

(480 BC) Herodotus 7.234 - Damaratus informs Xerxes after Thermopylae

"O king," said Damaratus, "the Lacedaemonians altogether are many in number, and their cities are many. But what you would know, I will tell you: there is in Lacedaemon a city called Sparta, a city of about 8,000 men"

Thucydides 5.68 - tries to calculate their number based on the combatants at Mantinea

"Such were the order and the forces of the two combatants. The Lacedaemonian army looked the largest, though as to putting down the numbers of either host, or of the contingents composing it, I could no do so with any accuracy. Owing to the secrecy of their government the number of the Lacedaemonians was not known, and men are so apt to brag about the forces of their country that the estimate of their opponents was not trusted. The following calculation, however, makes it possible to estimate the numbers of the Lacedaemonians present upon this occasion. There were seven companies in the field without countin the Sciritae (perioikoi), who numbered six hundred men: in each company there were four Pentecostyes, and in the Pentecosty fout Enomoties. The first rank of the Enomoty was composed of four soldiers: as to the depth, although they had not been all drawn up alike, but as each captain chose, they were generally ranged eight deep: the first rank along the whole line, exclusive of the Sciritae, consisted of four hundred and forty-eight men."

Perioikoi Activity

Read through the "Unit 8: The Perioikoi" section of the Spartan Society Booklet

1. Look at the map of the Perioikoi sites and of the roads into and out of Laconia, what crucial passes did the Perioikoi control?
• Tegea, guarded the Kleissoura pass
2. What duties did the Perioikoi have to perform for the Spartans? What benefits did they receive in return?
• Commanded all passes into Laconia, including waterways
• Contributed half the forces to the Spartan army - sometimes even to the chain of command
• Managed most of the trade and craft in Laconia - since the Spartans felt those tasks were beneath them
• Possiby constructed the armour for the Spartans
• High chance that they contributed to keeping the Helot population at bay
3. How closely could the Spartans watch over the Perioikic communities? What incentives might they offer Perioikoi to make sure they remained loyal?
• The Spartans governed them with a hands off approach
• Their communities were autonomous - they conducted their own domestic affairs and elected their own leaders
• Their only restriction was that they were unable to decide their own foreign policies
• Some Perioikoi could make lucrative economic gains through trading on behalf of the Spartans
• Shared some religious ceremonies with the Spartans - Promaekeia
4. What was the main harbour of Sparta?
• Gytheion on the southern coast of Laconia

Military Use of the Perioikoi and Helots

• The Battle of Pylos - "After the Peloponnesians pulled back from Attika, the Spartiates themselves and the perioikoi who lived closest went immediately to help at Pylos" - Thuc 4.8
• The Battle of Mantinea - "On this occasion the left wing was held by the skiritai, who always have this privilege (unique in the Lakedaemonian army) of operating on their own as a unit" - Thuc 5.67
• The Battle of Plataea - "Ten Thousand Lakedaemonians held the right wing: of them, five thousand were Spartiates, who were guarded by thirty-five thousand Helots - seven serving each man" - Herodotus 9.28
• The Battle of Mantinea - "This finally spurred them into action, and they mustered all their forces - Lakedaimonians and Helots alike - to go to their aid with the largest force they had ever assembled" - Thuc, 5.64
• Brasidas' Northern Campaign - "On this occasion too they were willing enough to send out about 700 of them as hoplites with Brasidas, though the rest of the army was mercenaries from the Peloponnese"

The Effect of the Perioikoi and Helots on Sparta's Foreign Policy

• Difficult to judge based on the limited available evidence we have
• No sources internal to Sparta that can be used to gauge how far the Helots and Perioikoi were troublesome for the Spartans on a regular basis
• However, we do have two key moments where we are able to judge this affect, when the insurrections were so bad that they influenced the outside world:
• The Spartan Earthquake of 464 BC
• The Conspiracy of the Inferior, Cinadon, in the 380s BC

Helots and Perioikoi in Revolt

Spartan Earthquake, 464 BC

Thucydides, 1.101-3

Diodorus Sicilus, E63

1. What factors caused the revolt?
• Thucydides
• Spartans were in the process of preparing to attack Athens when an earthquake struck
• Helots in Messenia and some perioikoi who lived near Mount Ithome revolted and occupied the mountains
• Diodorus
• Helots revolted after the earthquake
• Earthquake killed around 20,000 Lakedaemonians and the city of Sparta was badly damaged
• The Helots took advantage of the high number of dead to revolt
2. How were the Spartans able to subdue the revolt?
• Thucydides
• The Spartans asked Athens for assistance, but the Spartans feared the Athenians might empathise with the helots and help the revolt, so they dismissed them
• Helots and Spartans came to an agreement ' the Helots would leave the Peloponnese in exchange for their freedom
• Diodorus
• Archidamus took quick action ' grabbed his armour and led the Spartiates out of the city and into the countryside
3. Based on the account, how serious a threat was this revolt for the Spartans?
• 
  

Conspiracy of Cinadon, 380s BC

Xenophone, Hellenica

1. What factors caused the revolt?
• Cinadon was an inferior in the late 380s BC
• His motive was "to be inferior to none in Sparta"
• He took his conspirators to the Agora and pointed out the massive disparity between the few dozen Spartans vs 4,000 others
2. How were the Spartans able to subdue the revolt?
• The plot was brough to the attention of the ephors, who were greatly alarmed
• The ephors drew Cinadon out of the city for fear of an uprising, and arrested him in the countryside
• He was tortured until he revealed the names of his co-conspirators
• The conspirators were rounded up, and dragged through Sparta under lashes and spears
3. Based on the account, how serious a threat was this revolt for the Spartans?
• Though the conspiracy was small, the Helots and Perioikoi would "gladly eat them (Spartans) raw"

Spartan Society: The Spartiates

 "Agesilaus ordered the allies to sit down with each other all mixed-up, and the Spartans on their own by themselves. Then he told the potters to stand up, then the blacksmiths, carpenters, builders and each other craft. And so all the allies stood up except a few, but none of the Spartans, for they were not allowed to work in or learn a manual trade" - Plutarch, Agesilaus, 26

Spartan Citizenship

• Both mother and father had to be Spartan citizens
• The child was inspected for any ailments/deformities (the weak were killed)
• Agoge - men had to go through this training school from 7-30 years old
• After training - had to be accepted into a syssitia - like a fraternity - had to be unanimously accepted

Characteristics of Spartan Society

Spartan society can broadly be defined by a unique set of codes and characteristics that all Spartans were expected to adhere to:

1. Equality between the Homoioi (meaning peers or equals)
2. Frugality and an austere lifestyle, shunning material pleasures
3. Leisure and bonding between the Homoioi, enjoying the privileges of a citizen
4. Conformity and Obedience to the state and its laws
5. Discipline and Self-Sacrifice on behalf of Sparta, the state is more important than the individual
6. Independence a an individual in Sparta

The Interactions of Spartan Society

• Spartan society was predominantly a public one
• More specifically it was one in which social bonding equality and friendly competition was promoted enthusiastically in the forms of:
• Music
• Singing and Dancing
• Ritualised Hardship
• Organised Games and Fights
• Public Messes

Music

• The Spartans harboured an enjoyment of music
• Dancing to the flute or the lyre was done by both sexes alike; however most of these dances represented/simulated:
• Battles
• Military Drill
• Wrestling
• Wild Animal Hunts
• Religious Aspects
• Plutarch states that their songs:
• "had a life and spirit in them that enflamed and possessed men's minds with an enthusiasm and ardour for action"

Singing and Dancing

• Choral and dancing competitions were held annually
• Festival of Gymnopaediae - all male Spartans competed - whole battalions of soldiers both old and young sang for their prowess and courage, and of deeds yet to be performed

Ritualised Hardship

• Notorious endurance contest - flogging the youths at the altar of Artemis Orthia
• Frequently boys died during this ceremony - but a statue of honour was erected to the boy who endured the longest
• It may have tied in with initiation and the shedding of blood as a bond between man and god

Organised Games and Fights

• Once a year two teams - representing Lycurgus and Heracles - were chosen to face each other in combat
• They met on an island in a river; having first sacrificed a pup and watched a fight between two boars
• Aim of the fight - drive the opposing team into the river
• There were no rules - kicking, eye-gouging and biting were allowed
• Annual ball game - teams of fifteen - sole object possession of the ball at the end of the game by any method

The Public Messes

• The public meals have been called by a variety of names:
• Syssitia or Syssition
• Phiditia or Phitidion
• Plutarch - stated that the meals were devised by Lycurgus to strike a blow at luxury
• Xenophon - maintained that Lycurgus invented them, by bringing people out in the open, in order to prevent poor behaviour and failure to obey orders

Unique or Not?

• The two views held by the sources are in fact incorrect
• Such meals were not unique to Sparta alone and were in fact of ancient origin
• They were basically military messes with approximately fifteen members [half a company]
• Later they lost their military character

Citizenship Dependent on Membership

• Membership of the mess was a prerequisite for Spartan citizenship:
• "Each of the mess-mates took in his hand a bit of soft bread, and when a servant came along with a bowl upon his head, then they cast it into this without a words, like a ballot, leaving it round as it was if he approved of the candidate, but if he disapproved, squeezing it tight in his hand first. The spoiled bread represented the same as a spoiled ballot. And if just one such is found in the bowl, the candidate is not admitted to the mess, because they wish all its members to be congenial to each other" - Plutarch, Lycurgus, 12

Compulsory Attendance

• The meals were held [possibly in tents] in a large, open space by the side of the Hyacinthine Way
• Attendance was compulsory every day among Spartan peers
• The evening meal was always eaten there
• The only acceptable excuse for nonattendance were
• Sickness
• Hunting expeditions
• Public sacrifices

Contributions

• Each peer was bound to make a monthly contribution of grain, fruit and wine from the produce of his Kleros
• The messes also enabled young Spartans to:
• Listen to conversations of their elders; and
• Learn of the honourable deeds performed by Spartans for their state
• Furthermore - the public nature of the meals put a restraint on indecent language, bad conduct and drunkenness

Spartan Society: Activity

1. Plutarch, Life of Lycurgus, points 8-10, 12, 24
2. Xenophon, Constitution of the Spartans, points 5,7
3. Kritias: Fragment D60

Find as many examples of the following

• Equality between Spartans
• Frugality and Austerity
• Discipline, Conformity and Obedience
• Leisure, Bonding and Comradery

Equality Between Spartans

• Plutarch - Lycurgus ordered all Spartiates to pull all their land together and redistribute it. 9,000 plots for the Spartans, 30,000 for the perioeci - not mentioned by any fifth century source. Plutarch erroneous here. He's referring to a third century king called Agis who wanted to redistribute the land. Agis claimed that Lycurgus had done the same before. This is why only sources dated after his rule mentioned it
• Each kleros provided enough to sustain each Spartiate and their family
• With their equal landholdings they would seek to be first "only in merit"
• Plutarch + Xenophon - he outlawed currency and replace it with iron bars
• Plutarch - deliberately weakened to be worthless (vinegar was poured on the iron)
• Xenophon - Searches were made for hidden currency
• Greed dissipated
• Plutarch - each member of a mess hall contributed equal portions from their kleros, which was then redistributed equally
• Kritias - in the mess halls all Spartans drank from the same cup
• Plutarch - even the kings had to follow the rules - example of Agis

Frugality and Austerity

• Plutarch - Lycurgus decided that "just this amount of food would suffice for their fitness and health, and they would need nothing more"
• Xenophon - food was proportional to the work put in
• Plutarch - "possessions won no advantage because there was no public outlet for their wealth"
• No merchants, no pimps or prostitutes, or teachers of rhetoric
• Removed all craftsmen who were considered useless
• Kritias - Contrasts the moderate behaviour of the restrained Spartans in the mess hall vs the indulgent Athenians
• Plutarch and Xenophon - Spartans were forbidden from carrying torches, which encouraged them not to drink excessively and helped them to learn to navigate through the dark
• Plutarch - Made helping one's companions more honourable than money driven
• Plutarch - mess halls the "finest reform" and an "attack on luxury"

Discipline, Conformity and Obedience

• Plutarch - example of King Agis being punished for not attending messes - shows that even the kings had to obey the law
• Xenophon - "living at home led to considerable neglect of duty" - so by instituting public messes they could check for disobedience"
• Plutarch - Unanimous voting decisions for mess-hall entry forced the Spartans to conform
• Xenophon - Age groups were mixed - which allowed younger Spartans to learn from the old and vice versa, and soothed generational divides and conflicts
• Plutarch - "they viewed themselves as part of their community rather than as individuals" + "they lived a prescribed lifestyle and devoted themselves to communal concerns"

Leisure, Bonding and Comradery

• Plutarch - The Spartans were encouraged to take and give out jokes in equal measures. Plutarch says that the ability to take criticism is a very Spartan quality
• Plutarch - Women were encouraged to take part in athletics such as javelin and discus throwing
• Plutarch - they spent most of their time choral dancing, taking part in festivals and feasts, hunting expeditions, physical exercise and conversation
• Kritias - Contrasts the Athenian symposia with the Spartan syssitia, emphasises the Spartan peers bonding
• Plutarch - Sexual relationships were open. Lovers' quarrels elsewhere became friendly rivalries
• Plutarch - in the mess halls witnessed "political discussions" and "the kind of entertainment appropriate for free men"
• Kritias - In Sparta the free are the most free, and the slaves are the most enslaved

Inferiors: Activity

• Xenophon, Constitution of the Spartans, 9
• Plutarch, Lycurgus, 15
• Thucydides, 5.34
• Herodotus, 7.229-232 (right at the back of the reader after the Thermopylae section)

Make a list of the various ways an inferior was treated in Sparta, making sure to refer to which specific source refers to which specific bit of info

• Xenophon:
• Tresantes ("Tremblers") - Outcasts from their mess halls, disgraceful to be paired with them in athletic competitions
• Forced to live without their wives, and still subject to the same punishments as unwedded bachelors
• Were not allowed to display happiness in public
• If a younger person entered the room they would be forced to give up their seats
• They would be resigned to the most ignominious position in the chorus
•  Plutarch:
• Men who remained unwedded past their prime were forced to parade naked in the Agora, in the middle of winter. They had to sing a degrading song about how their punishment was just
• Barred from the Gymnopaedia - an important festival in Sparta
• Anecdote of the distinguished general who a younger Spartan refused to give up his seat for "because you have no son who will give their seat to me"
• Thucydides
• Neodamodes - The Helots who had fought with Brasidas were freed and could live where they liked
• Tresantes - Spartans who surrendered at Sphacteria in 425BC were deprived of citizenship and barred from political and economic rights. However, their rights were eventually restored
• a) is the punishment not as severe as Xenophon claims?
• b) could the Spartans no longer punish Tresantes as harshly due to their declining numbers?
• Herodotus
• Aristodemus and Pantites - the two survivors of Thermopylae - 480-479 BC
• Both were excused from battle because of an eye infection
• Pantites ran back to the battle and died with the 300, but Aristodemus loitered to delay joining and returned home alone after
• If both had returned to Sparta, they would have been excused, but because one ran back to the battle and one didn't, Aristodemus was punished as a tresantes
• No Spartan would speak to him; he was reproached as a social outcast
• Ostracised from Spartan life
• Nicknamed Aristodemus the coward
• However, he redeemed himself at Plataea by charging alone into the fray, but the Spartans called him reckless. Jealousy?
• Shows that inferiors still served in the army
• By charging he would've broken the formation, endangering his comrades

Criticisms of Spartan Society

Read the following sections of Aristotle's "Criticisms of the Spartan Constitution" in the Politics

• Property
• The land passed into few hands, and others naturally lost out
• Though the land could sustain 30,000 infantry, the real number was 1,000
• Monetary transactions were outlawed, but property and possessions were allowed to be gifted to one another
• Women could also inherit property. By Aristotle's period 2/5 of all land was owned by heiresses
• Common Meals
• Each Spartan was meant to contribute equal portions to their mess, but because of the wealth disparity, many could not make their contributions
• Contributions were necessary for Spartan citizenship, so many were barred from becoming full citizens
• Anything but democratic
• Should have been run at public expense
• Further Criticisms
• The Spartans were so focused on war that they did not know how to live in leisure
• No money in the treasury for public expenditure because there was no money
• It is a state where everyone is poor, but greedy
• Naval command had become another kingship

Outline the criticisms Aristotle makes of Spartan society, how it was organised and the arrangements put in place

Sources

5th Century:

• Herodotus, Thucydides, Socrates, Plato, Xenophon, Kritias - the latter four were Laconophiles

4th Century:

• Aristotle

2nd Century:

• Diodorus, Polybius

1st Century AD:

• Plutarch

Plato, Xenophon and Kritias were students of Socrates. Plato, in turn, taught Aristotle

Different Groups Within Spartan Society

 Spartiates

• Original Dorian conquerors of Laconia - the Spartiates never numbered more than 10,000
• Privileged social class, holding all political power
• All equal under the law and all subjected to the same training and discipline
• Forbidden to engage in farming, trade and industry. These were done by Helots and Perioeci
• There were rich and poor Spartiates, but there is some controversy over the existence of a nobility
• Full time soldiers owing total obedience to the state
• The state supported them by giving them an allotment of public land (Kleros) and of Helots
• Lived by a high code of honour that involved courage, loyalty, endurance and obedience

Women

• Emancipated - mingled freely with men and shared their sports, but were excluded from holding public office and did not have the right to vote
• Did not spin or weave - regarded these tasks as fit only for slaves
• Trained to be fit companions, and mothers of warriors and heroes
• Known for natural beauty, strength and grace - forbidden from wearing jewelry, cosmetics and perfume
• Grew up in physical freedom, but modest and careful of health
• Very wealthy, as numbers of men declined in the 5th century, two-fifths of the land came into their hands

Perioeci

"Dwellers around" or "Those on the periphery" - Perioeci were not unique to Sparta

• Dorian in origin - lived in approximately 100 scattered communities in the area controlled by Sparta
• Their villages served as a wall or "buffer zone" against escaping Helots
• Autonomous (self-governing) in their own communities - had local citizenship; owed allegiance to Sparta
• Had no say in formulating Spartan policy
• Were not permitted to marry Spartiates
• Chief contribution to the Spartans was economic - engaged in trade and industry
• Spartan Kings' revenue came from their estates in the lands of the perioeci
• All adult male perioeci were expected to serve as hoplites alongside Spartiates, although not involved in training
• If involved in a case with a Spartiate, were brought before the ephors for trial

Inferiors

Neither slaves nor citizens

• Partheniai
• Illegitimate offspring of Helot mothers and Spartiate fathers
• Neodamodes
• Helots, who for some courageous act or service to the state were given freedom
• Mothoces
• Sons of helots often 'adopted' as playmates of Spartan boys - shared training
• Tresantes
• Spartan peers - cowards who lost citizenship - not necessarily permanently

Helots

• Pre-Dorian inhabitants conquered by Spartans - some Messenians may have been part-Dorian
• State-owned serfs lived with families on lands of Spartiates - could not move without government permission
• Main duty was to supply a fixed amount of produce annually to Spartan masters - free to make a profit once upkeep of Spartans paid for
• Politically and legally had no rights whatsoever - only the state could free them or dispose of them
• Often acted as servants to Spartan soldiers during war - also served as light-armed skirmishers in battle
• Constant threat to Spartan security - were discontented and rebellious; outnumbered the Spartiates approximately 20:1
• Often treated harshly - from time to time killed by the Krypteia to keep them under control; always under suspicion
• A few freed for bravery or service to the state, but had no civic rights - termed neodamodes - however, it was dangerous to show too much bravery

Lyrcurgus: Man or Myth?

 Spartan Society

Spartan society consisted mainly of five different groups:

• Spartiates:
• The main group of the Spartan society. The men who guarded and defended the society
• Spartan Women:
• Equal to the Spartan men and the mothers of warriors
• Perioeci:
• The dwellers on the periphery of Spartan society
• Inferiors:
• The four groups in Spartan society who for some reason were outcasts
• Helots:
• The slave population for the Spartiates, they were feared by the Spartan community due to their rebellious nature

Lycurgus: The questions that should be asked...

1. Who was Lycurgus?
2. Why is he important to Spartan society?
3. What role did he play for the development of Spartan society?
4. Why do historians find Lycurgus problematic?
5. What do the sources say about Lycurgus?
6. How far can we trust the sources on Lycurgus' existence

The Man

So who was Lycurgus?

• (700 BC?-630 BC) he was [supposedly] the legendary lawgiver of Sparta, who established the military-oriented reformation of Spartan society in accordance with the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi
• All his reforms were directed towards the three Spartan virtues: equality (among citizens), military fitness and austerity

Historian Views

• He is referred to by ancient historians Herodotus, Xenophon, and Plutarch
• It is not clear if this Lycurgus was an actual historical figure; however, many ancient historians believed that Lycurgus was responsible for the communalistic and militaristic reforms which transformed Spartan society
• The most major of his reforms was known as The Great Rhetra. Ancient historians place him in the first half of the 7th century BC

The Great Rhetra

I.

Oh! thou great Lycurgus, that coms't

to my beautiful dwelling, Dear to

Jove, and to all who sit in the halls

of Olympus, Whether to hail thee a 

god I know not, or only a mortal,

But my hope is strong that thou a

god wilt prove, Lycurgus.

II.

Cravest thou Arcady? Bold is thy

craving. I shall not content it.

Many the men that in Arcady

dwell, where food is the acorn.

They will never allow thee. It is not

I that am ungenerous, I will give

thee to dance in Tegea, with noisy

foot-fall. And with the measuring

line mete out the glorious

campaign.

III.

Level and smooth is the plain where

Arcadian Tegea standeth; There two

winds are ever, by strong necessity

blowing, Counter-stroke answers

stroke, and evil lies upon evil. There

all-teeming Earth doth harbour the

son of Atrides; Bring thou him to

thy city, and then be Tegea's master.

IV.

These oracles they from Apollo

heard, And brought from Pytho

home the perfect word; The heaven-

appointed kings, who love the land,

Shall foremost in the nation's council

stand; The elders next o them; the

commons last; Let a straight Rhetra

among all be passed

Plutarch points out in his biography of Lycurgus that:

"One can say absolutely nothing on Lycurgus the Lawgiver which is not prone to controversy: his origin, his travels, his death, and finally the development of his laws and constitution give rise to very different historical accounts"

Lycurgus activity:

1. What claims are made regarding the time period for when Lycurgus lived by
1. Aristotle
• Same time as Iphitus and was his partner in instituting the Olympic truce
2. Eratosthenes and Apollodorus
• He lived a great many years before the First Olympiad
3. Timaeus
• Two Lycurguses at different times who were confused as the same. The older one might have lived close to Homer's time
4. Xenophon
• In the time of the Heraclids (first kings)
2. Who does the poet Simonides state as the father of Lycurgus?
• Prytanis
3. What occurred under the rule of Sous?
• Helots first became slaves and Sparta expanded in to new territory
4. How did the kingly line of Eurypontids come about?
• Named as such after Sous' son, Eurypon, who courted popularity and ingratiated himself with the masses, thereby being the first to relax the "excessively autocratic character of the kingship"
5. How did Sparta come to be a society "gripped by lawlessness and disorder"?
• Ingratiating himself with the masses led to a "bolder attitude on the part of the people" - some succeeding kings were detested for ruling the people by force, while others were "merely tolerated" because their role was either partisan or feeble
6. How, according to Plutarch, did Lycurgus' father die?
• Died from being struck by a chef's cleaver while trying to break up a fight
7. What is the Spartan word for the guardians of kings without fathers?
• Prodikoi
8. How did Lycurgus mislead the wife of Polydectes?
• She was pregnant with the late king's baby, and she told Lycurgus that she would abort the baby on the condition that he would marry her. He told her he would dispose of the child as soon as it was born. He sent observers and guards to be present at the birth and ordered them to bring the child straight to him if it was a boy. When the boy was brought to him, he presented the baby to the magistrates he was dining with and declared him as the king
9. What was the name of the newly born King of Sparta?
• Charilaus
10. Who made the accusation against Lycurgus and why?
• The king's mother felt injured by Lycurgus. Once, her brother Leonidas accused Lycurgus of wanting to become king. By his slander, Leonidas laid the ground for accusing Lycurgus of a plot, should any harm come to the king
11. Where did Lycurgus travel to and what did he learn at each place?
• Crete - where he studied the forms of government and took note of the laws he admired, with the intention of bringing them home and putting them to use
• Asia - he went to compare the frugal, tough way of life in Crete with the extravagance and luxury of Ionia, and to observe the contrast in the ways of life and government. Ionia is also where he allegedly first encountered the poems of Homer
• Egypt - he learned of the Egyptian separation of the warrior class from the others - he carried this over to Sparta
12. Who were the Gymnosophists?
• Indian philosophers who pursued asceticism to the point of regarding food and clothing as detrimental to purity of thought
13. Why were the kings NOT reluctant to see Lycurgus return?
• They hoped that with his presence they would receive less offence from the people
14. What was the first intention of Lycurgus upon his return to Sparta?
• To sweep away the existing order and to make a complete change of constitution
15. What were the words of the Oracle?
• The oracle called Lycurgus "dear to the Gods" and "a god rather than a man" - he had asked for a Good Order, and she declared that the gods granted this and promised that his constitution would be by far the finest of all
16. When Plutarch makes mention of "God" by the Oracle, who is he referring to?
• Lycurgus
17. Who was Arthmiades?
• Arthmiades is generally named as the one who was particularly associated with Lycurgus in all his operations, and who collaborated with him in formulating legislation
18. Why did King Charilaus seek refuge in the Bronze house?
• King Charilaus thought that the whole action was being concerted against him
19. According to Plato, what was Lycurgus' first innovation? What was it a combination of? What was it intended to fix?
• The institution of the Elders. Its combination with the king's arrogant rule, and the right to an equal vote on the most important matters, produced security and at the same time sound sense
• It was intended to fix the instability of the state, as at one moment it would incline towards kings and virtual tyranny, and at another towards the people and democracy
20. Why, according to Aristotle, were the 28 elders introduced? What is Plutarch's theory on this?
• This number of Elders was instituted because two of Lycurgus' thirty leading associates panicked and abandoned the enterprise
• The total should be thirty when the two kings are included

What the Sources Say...

Theory 1:

• A war veteran - who, with the support of his comrades, managed to become regent or tutor to the Spartan King Charilaus

Theory 2:

• In his beginnings, many of his laws were opposed, particularly by the wealthier men. They collected in a body against Lycurgus, and came to throwing stones, so that he was forced to flee and make sanctuary

Story to link to Theory 2:

He outran all but one, a young man who was known for his haste and ill mannered temperament, named Alcander. When Lycurgus stopped running and turned to see if he was followed, Alcander came up close and hit him in the face with a stick, causing great distress to Lycurgus' eye

Upon showing his damaged face to the protesters, they felt great shame and served Alcander to be punished at Lycurgus' will in order to make amends. Alcander's sentence was to serve as Lycurgus' servant and through that period of time, upon learning the greatness of Lycurgus and his dedication to the people, Alcander eventually became one of Lycurgus' biggest supporters

Institutions

Lycurgus is credited with the formation of many Spartan institutions integral to the country's rise to power

1. He created the sussita/syssitia, the practice that required all Spartan men to eat together in common mess halls
2. His most important addition to Spartan culture was the development of the agoge. The infamous practice took all healthy seven year old boys from the care of their mothers and placed them in a rigorous military regiment
3. More dubiously, Lycurgus is prescribed with forbidding the use of any tools other than an axe and saw in the building of a house

Establishments

Among the reforms attributed to Lycurgus are:

1. The establishment of the gerousia and assembly;
2. The substitution of iron money for gold and silver coinage;
3. The requirement of eating in commons and living (for men under the age of thirty) in rough-hewn barracks;
4. The destruction of the city walls to promote martial skill;
5. Re-dividing Spartan land and forcing it to be worked by Helots; and
6. The system of government that divided power between the King, the Spartan citizenry, the Gerousia, and the Ephors, all in order to establish within his people a free-mind, self-dependence, and temperance

So Legend Says...

According to the legend found in Plutarch's Lives and other sources, when Lycurgus became confident in his reforms, he announced that he would go to the Oracle at Delphi to make a sacrifice to Apollo

However, before leaving for Delphi, he called an assembly of the people of Sparta and made everyone, including the kings and senate, take an oath binding them to observe his laws until he returned. He made the journey to Delphi and consulted the oracle, which told him that his laws were excellent and would make his people famous

He then disappeared from history

One explanation was that being satisfied by this he starved himself to death instead of returning home, forcing the citizens of Sparta to keep his laws indefinitely.

Bertrand Russell states that he is a mythical person of Arcadian origin - his name meaning "He who brings into being the works of a wolf"

Year 2: Introduction to the Greek State: Sparta

 The Greek Polis

• Self governing autonomous society

Features

1. The acropolis - stronghold of community life
2. The town and city were built around the acropolis
3. The villages and countryside
4. The people of the city and countryside
5. The political, cultural, religious and economic life

Structure of Population

• Citizens [adult males] 43,000
• Women and children - 129,000
• Metics [foreign craftsmen] 28,000
• Slaves - 115,000

Citizenship Restrictions

• Adult males - varied depending on the city i.e: Athens = 18yrs; Sparta 30yrs
• Usually both parents had to be born in the city; sometimes only one was necessary

Obligations and Responsibility

• Every citizen was expected to take his political responsibility seriously and to take pride in the affairs of the polis
• This evoked strong feelings of patriotism
• Difficulties - joint union of the Hellenes

1. Geographical location
2. A need to be free and independent
3. Relations marked by commercial jealousies and rivalries, shifting alliances and interstate wars

Forms of Government

1. Monarchy [governance by kings]
2. Aristocracy [group of nobles]
3. Timocracy [group who owed their political power to wealth]

Overthrown Governments

• On many occasions the oligarchies were overthrown and a tyrant would seize control for a short time
• A tyrant would bring with him many benefits before being overthrown himself and replaced by another form of government, either:
• Oligarchy [where a select elite dew control political power] or
• Democracy [where all citizens have the right to vote, to make laws and be elected to official positions]

Sparta: Prehistory

• Sparta is heavily attested in the mythological canon
• Supposedly the first settlement was made by Lacedaemon, a son of Zeus and the nymph Taygete. He married Sparta, the daughter of Eurotas
• These names would then be co-opted by the Spartans - the city would be Sparta, the country Lacedaemon, the fertile river that flowed through the city Eurotas and the impassable mountains that protected the city Taygetos
• Sparta is central to the Trojan Wars. Helen of Troy was originally Helen of Sparta, and it was the Spartan King Menelaus who together with his brother Agamemnon led the Greeks to war
• The Dorian Invasions of the 11th Century BC brought down the Mycenaean civilisation, and with it Sparta slipped into the Dark Ages alongside the rest of Greece
• Herodotus and other classical scholars claim this had been prophesised, as the son of Heracles (Heraclidae) would return to claim their rightful lands
• The next major events attested in Sparta were their invasions of Messenia, and the enslavement of the Messenian population, who became the Helots
• Around the same time, tradition attests that a legendary lawgiver, Lycurgus, brought a sweeping new set of regulations to the Spartan way of life
• The Spartans collectively prescribed themselves to Lyrcurgus' regulations, focused on military training and personal excellence
• Sparta was born

The Poleis of Sparta [Lakedaemonia]

• Sparta itself was not a traditional city but was a collection of 5 villages:
1. Limnai
2. Pitana
3. Kynosaura
4. Mesoa
5. Amyklai
• The city was skirted by Mt Taygetos to the West and Mt Parnon to the East
• The river Eurotas flowed through the valley, providing rich, agricultural land

"Suppose the city of Sparta to be deserted, and nothing left but the temples and the ground-plan, distant ages would be very unwilling to believe that the power of the Lacedaemonians was at all equal to their fame. Their city is not built continuously and has no splendid temples or other edifices; it rather resembles a group of villages, like the ancient towns of Hellas, and would therefore make a poor show" - Thucydides 1.10

DVD Questions

1. What two things are the Spartans famous for?
• Frugality and fighting
2. What was the aim of the Spartan way of life?
• To create the perfect state
3. What was Sparta the first Greek city to do?
• To define the rights and duties of its citizens
4. What city did Agamemnon rule over?
• Mycenae
5. What percentage of land in Greece cannot be farmed?
• 70%
6. What mountains lied to the west of Sparta?
• Taygetos Mountains
7. What temple was built to honour "the legendary king and his wayward wife"?
• Menelaion, in honour of Menelaus and Helen
8. What did the city states of Greece in this period all have in common?
• They were governed by a set of mutually agreed laws and customs
9. How many kings did Sparta have?
• Two
10.  Who were the kings of Sparta supposedly descended from?
• Heracles
11. What does the word "Periocoi" mean?
• Those who live around
12. What does the word "Helot" translate into?
• Captives
13. How was slavery different in Sparta different than elsewhere in Greece?
• The Spartans enslaved other Greeks
14. Who was Tyrtaeus?
• A Spartan soldier and poet
15. Who served as the hoplites in Ancient Greece?
• The citizens
16. Why was hoplite warfare a "team effort"?
• The Phalanx, co-ordination, discipline and trust were vital
17. When were the Messenians finally enslaved by the Spartans?
• 650 BC
18. What was the aim of the Spartans after they had conquered Messenia? What would they model their society on?
• To create a utopia, modelled on the Hoplit

Sources for Ancient Sparta

• One key issue when studying Ancient Sparta is that they did not have a tradition of recording their history
• There are scant fragmentary papyrys from the 6th century of Spartan poets such as Tyrtaeus and Alcman, but that's about it
• Archaeology of Ancient Sparta has also only recently been conducted in any systematic fashion, and what we have found is minimal (there is a reason for that, but we'll get to that later)
• We are therefore left with one option: to use the wealth of written evidence about Sparta from their main rivals: Athens

Plutarch

• One chief source for Sparta is the historian/biographer/philosopher Plutarch
• He wrote a "biography" of Sparta's legendary lawgiver, Lycurgus, that transcends into a broad sociological study of Classical Sparta
• Plutarch was not a contemporary, wring around 120 AD, 500 years after the fall of Classical Sparta
• At this stage, Sparta was a popular tourist destination, where Romans would visit the city to see "Spartans" re-enact traditions from their glorious past - Plutarch himself says he visited Sparta as a tourist
• By this time Sparta had received wide academic study from other Greeks and the Romans, and Plutarch was able to draw upon this tradition to write his work. We know he used contemporary writers such as Xenophon, Thucydides, Aristotle and Plato

Xenophon

• Xenophon lived and wrote at the end of the Peloponnesian War in the late 5th century BC
• He was an Athenian and a student of Socrates, alongside Plato and Alcibiades
• Many of Athens' intellectuals at this stage were laconophiles - literally "Spartan Lovers" - they interpreted the failures of the Athenian democratic system through contrasting them with the seeming impervious system of the Spartans
• Following the Peloponnesian War, Xenophon served as a commander of a mercenary company known as the "Ten Thousand", who accompanied Cyrus the Younger in a civil war against  his brother, Artaxerxes II
• On his campaigns Xenophon endeared himself to the Spartan King Agesilaus and he later moved to Olympia in the Peloponnese to serve as a Spartan ambassador
• He almost definitely visited Sparta, and there is strong evidence his sons went through the agoge, Sparta's harsh educational programme
• His work, the "Politaea of the Spartans" is a systematic appraisal of most aspects of Sparta's society

Aristotle

• Aristotle was not an Athenian, but he was born in Stagira in Northern Greece
• However, he moved to Athens and studied under Plato in the 4th century BC
• At this stage, Sparta had crumbled under her own internal disorders, as well as a succession of military defeats
• The rose-tinted view of many laconophiles in Athens had therefore been shattered, and Aristotle made a clear break from his intellectual predecessors by viewing Sparta through a critical lens
• His work is a series of lecture notes that he delivered to his students

Other Sources

• Thucydides and Herodotus - both contemporaries to Classical Sparta who provide invaluable details
• Plato and Critias - two other students of Aristotle who made important philosophical notes on the Spartans
• Polybius - a second century BC Greek historian who interprets Sparta through a constitutional framework
• Tyrtaeus and Alcman - the two Spartan writers who offer us a sliver of a glimpse into the real Sparta
• Aristophanes - whose plays provide stereotype Spartans that show us how other Greeks viewed the Spartans
• Archaeology - to corroborate everything

From the Delian League to the Athenian Empire

First Year Greek Themes

• The threat of the Persians
• How Greek states interact with each other
• How different states exploited and controlled each other
• Sparta's fear of Athenian domination
• Changing military tactics throughout the period
• Causes of conflict between states
• The Role of Individuals
• The sources and their utility during this period

Effects of Athenian Leadership: Aristeides creates the Delian League

"Aristeides advised all the allies, who were holding a general meeting, to choose Delos as their common Treasury, to deposit there all the money they collected, and to impose a levy on all the cities according to their means for the war which they suspected would come from Persia. The total collected as a result was 560 talents. Aristeides was put in charge of the tribute assessment, and he shared out the amount so precisely and fairly that all the cities were well pleased. Since he seemed to have accomplished something impossible, Aristeides got the greatest reputation for justice, and because he was so excessively just he was known as 'Aristeides the Just'" - Diodorus

Effects of Athenian Leadership: Policies of later leaders

"As the men of old praised the age of Kronos [as the Golden Age], so the allies of the Athenians sang the praises of Aristeides' assessment as a stroke of good fortune for Greece, and particularly when not long afterwards tribute was doubled and then tripled. To explain, Aristeides' assessment was 460 talents: Pericles added practically a third to this, for Thucydides says [2.13] that at the beginning of the [Peloponnesian] war 600 talents were coming in to the Athenians from their allies; after Pericles' death, the demagogues increased it little by little until they brought the total to 1,300 talents. They did this not so much because of the length and fortunes of war, but because they enticed the people into distributions of money, payments for public shows [theorika], and constructing cult statues and temples" - Plutarch

• Shows that the Athenians exploited their allies for money.
• Pericles was more imperialistic and less fair than Aristeides
  

Effects of Athenian Leadership: the policy of Kimon

"The allies continued paying tribute but failed to provide men and ships according to their assessment, and were already refusing to go on campaign and did not man ships or send men, on the grounds that there was no need for warfare and that they wanted to live quietly and farm, since the barbarians had been removed and were not causing trouble. When Kimon was General he accepted money from those who were not willing to campaign, and empty ships, and he let them be enticed by leisure and spend their time on their own affairs, turning themselves from warriors into money-makers and farmers not fit for war through luxury and folly. As a result of their own shyness of warfare, the allies became accustomed to fearing and flattering the men who were maintained and trained, and were always sailing and handling arms; they failed to realise that they were turning themselves into subjects and slaves" - Plutarch

• When allies would revolt, such as Samos, the Athenians would tear down their walls and take hostages - this is how they would control their allies. However, the above shows that the allies made themselves subservient to the empire. Either Kimon was very sneaky and tricked the allies, or it was just the allies' fault for not maintaining the ability to fight
  

Athenian Control over Allies: Chalkis Decree c. 440s BC

"The Khalkidians are to swear an oath on the following terms: 'I will not revolt from the people of Athens by any means or device whatsoever, neither in word nor in deed, nor will I obey anyone who does revolt, and if anyone revolts, I will denounce him to the Athenians, and I will pay to the Athenians whatever tribute I persuade them to agree, and I will be the best and fairest ally I am able to be and will help and defend the Athenian people in the event of anyone wronging the Athenian people, and I will obey the Athenian people.' All the Khalkidians of military age and above are to swear. If anyone does not swear, he is to be deprived of his civic rights and his property is to be confiscated and a tithe of it dedicated to Olympian Zeus. The People as soon as possible should choose 5 men to go to Khalkis to exact the oaths. And on the matter of hostages, they should reply to the Khalkidians that for the moment the Athenians have decided to leave matters as decreed [so] But whenever they decide, they will deliberate and draw up an agreement [Or exchange] on conditions which seem suitable for the Athenians and the Khalkidians. The foreigners who live in Khalkis and do not pay taxes to Ahtnes, even if they have been given tax exemption by the Athenian people, should pay taxes in Khalkis along with the rest, just like the other Khalkidians"

• Doesn't apply to other states
• A window into how defected states were treated
• Complete and utter loyalty "neither in word nor deed" - so can't even speak out against Athens without being considered revolting
• Only men of military age made to swear as they'd be the ones who posed the greatest risk
• The punishment for not signing is losing civic rights and confiscation of property (financial control)
• Foreigners who didn't previously pay tax now had to
• Pretty heavy handed
• Thuc - "the strong do what they can, the weak endure what they must"
• Pericles - incredibly imperialist
  

Rise of the Demagogues

"And so, as for this city here, when the working folk came out of their farms, they had no idea that they were being sold off and because they were without raisins and loved their figs, they looked to the chattering politicians for help. These crooks, though, knowing full well that the farmers were poor, weak and in need of bread, sent this goddess (Peace) away with screams as sharp as pitchforks. Then they started attacking our allies - the rich and fat ones, accusing them of being sympathisers of Brasidas. So what do you, fools, do? Just like stupid little angry puppies, you jumped on the poor man and damned near tore him to pieces! So the poor folk, pale from fear, sat about waiting for any little thing anyone would offer their grumbling stomachs. The foreigners saw all this. They saw the wounds as they were being made and, to silence the perpetrators, they stuffed their mouths with gold, thus making them rich whilst the Greeks were left totally abandoned - and you knew nothing about it! The one single guilty party of all this, was your leader, that leather beater, Cleon" - Aristophanes, Peace

• Step further than Pericles
• 422 BC - just after Cleon died at the battle of Amphipolis, Aristophanes' play 'Peace' explains why the demagogues rose to power - in the form of satire though so not entirely factual
• Demagogues punished rich states by claiming that they were Brasidas sympathisers so they could exploit them for money
• 'The foreigners' (other states) saw this and 'stuffed their (demagogues) mouths with gold' in order to protect themselves
• Exploiting for own ends
  

Delian League: Military Power

"Then they had an army of thirteen thousand heavy infantry, besides sixteen thousand more in the garrisons and on home duty at Athens. This was at first the number of men on guard in the event of an invasion: it was composed of the oldest and youngest levies and the resident aliens who had heavy armour. The Phaleric wall ran for four miles, before it joined that round the city; and of this last nearly five had a guard, although part of it was left without one, viz, that between the Long Wall and the Phaleric. Then there were the Long Walls to Piraeus, a distance of some four miles and a half, the outer of which was manned. Lastly, the circumference of Piraeus with Munychia was nearly seven miles and a half; only half of this, however, was guarded. Pericles also showed them that they had twelce hundred horses including mounted archers, with sixteen hundred archers unmounted, and three hundred galleys fit for service! - Thucydides

• 30,000 hoplites in the empire
  

Delian League: Economic Power

"They were not to go out to battle, but to come into the city and guard it, and get ready their fleet, in which their real strength lay. They were also to keep a tight rein on their allies - the strength of Athens being derived from the money brought in by their payments, and success in war depending principally upon conduct and capital. Apart from other sources of income, an average revenue of six hundred talents of silver was drawn from the tribute of the allies; and there were still six thousand talents of coined silver in the Acropolis, out of nine thousand seven hundred that had once been there, from which the money had been taken for the porch of the Acropolis, the other public buildings, and for Potidaea. To this Pericles added the treasures of the other temples. These were by no means inconsiderable, and might fairly be used. Nay, if they were ever absolutely driven to it, they might take even the gold ornaments of Athene herself; for the statue contained forty talents of pure gold and it was all removable. This might be used for self-preservation, and must every penny of it be restored, Such was their financial position - surely a satisfactory one."- Thucydides

• Tight rein on allies
  

The Tribute Lists

• The Tribute lists are inscriptional evidence detailing the phoros (tribute) paid by each state to the Athenian Empire every four years
• The lists are invaluable for showing the dynamic nature of tribute in the Athenian Empire - as well as how much each region paid to Athens
• The most important lessons learned from the lists are:
1. That Tribute was assessed on each individual states' economic strength - for example the island of Thasos was one of the highest paying states despite a low population due to gold mines on the island
2. At the end of the first Peloponnesian War in the 440s BC, and by the end of the Archidamian War in the 420s there are gaps missing in the tribute suggesting the Athenians could not collect tribute those years - showing Athenian economic control coincided with their military control over their allies
3. The tribute corroborates the literary evidence - for example we can see the tribute increasing in the 430s BC under the imperialistic policies of Pericles, as well as in the mid 420s BC when the demagogues seized power after Pericles' death
   

Economic Problems: The Thoudippos Decree

"[As to the tribute, since] it has become less, let [this court] together with the council, hold an assessment during the month of Poseidon (January/February), [just as in the last] term of office, of [all the assessments] proportionately. They shall deal with the matter every day from the beginning of the month [to ensure that] the tribute [is assessed] in Poseidon. [The full Council] is also to deal with the matter [continuously, to ensure that] the assessment happens, provided [that there is no contrary decree of the People - They must not [assess less] tribute for any [city] than the tribute that city [has brought in before now], unless there [seems to be such shortage of resources that] that territory cannot [bring in more]. The Secretary [of the Council is to] write up this on two] stelae and [place one in the] Council Chaamber and one [ on the Acropolis], the Sellers (Poletai) [are to put this out to contract] and the Kolakretai [are to provide the money]

[For the future, notice] about the tribute [is to be given to the] cities [before the] Great [Panathenaia. Whichever prytany] is in office is to introduce [the assessments at the] Panathenaia. [If the prytaneis do not introduce matters] about the [tribute then] to the People [and the Council and the court, or do not deal with it immediately] in their own term of office, [each of the prytaneis is to be fined 100 drachmas sacred to Athena [and 100 drachmas] to the public treasury, and [each of the prytaneis is to face a fine of 1,000 drachmas at their scrutiny]. And if anyone else [proposes a vote on the proposal that the cities not] be assessed at the first prytany [at the Great Panathenaia], let him lose his civil rights and the property [be confiscated and a tenth of it] given to the goddess"

• Assessment held Jan/Feb
• Not allowed to pay less, only more or the same (unless Athens specifically allowed it)
• If the council members took too long or proposed a vote that the cities are not to be assessed at the first prytany, for the former they would be fined 1,200 drachmas (100 to Athena, 100 to the treasury and another 1,000 just because) and for the latter they would lose their civic rights and have their property confiscated
  

This assessment is particularly notable because:

• it was done in a year when reassessment was not due
• of the strength of the language involved
• of the inclusion, at the end of the list, of states that had never previously paid to Athens or which had long ceased paying

Whether the re-assessment also massively increased the tribute demanded from the allies is less clear because little is preserved from the lists from earlier in the war. The way in which the war is cited as creating a need for extra income links this tribute increase with those in Athens who favoured active campaigning against Sparta rather than sitting it out. But a more particular link with Cleon cannot be established as although Thoudippos is a rare name, it is not certain whether or not the Thoudippos who proposed the decree is the same Thoudippos who married Cleon's daughter