Spartan Boys: Hebontes or Eirens

 Overview

• In most Greek cities young men became full adult citizens once they reached military age, usually around the age of twenty
• Spartans, however, entered a stage between the agoge and full adulthood, probably between 20 and c.30 years of age, which Xenophon saw as a unique feature of Spartiate life

Education Part One

• The young men (hebontes in Xenophon, eirens in Plutarch) participated in the syssitia
• They were liable to military service together with the older Spartiates
• They were not yet allowed to vote in the assembly or to marry and set up their own household

Education Part Two

• The hebontes were involved in musical performances (choruses, dance) at festivals
• They also participated in competitions - which means that training in musical as well as physical disciplines probably remained a regular part of their lives

Additional Roles

• We know that the hebontes played a role in the education of the younger boys, some in an official capacity as group leaders and supervisors, and presumably many more by forming personal relationships with particular boys

Xenophon as a Source

• In Xenophon's Spartan Constitution the life of the hebontes is characterised by intense competition
• He reports that the best were selected for a position in the elite corps of 300 hippeis (literally 'horsemen', but these did, in fact, fight with the infantry)
• All others remained in competition with each other and especially with those who had been singled out
• They watched each other's behaviour and Xenophon says that the rivalry was so intense that "they fought whenever they met"
• This period, therefore, meant further training in all aspects of an ideal Spartiate's life
• It allowed or even encouraged the young men to jostle for positions within Spartan society before they became full citizens

Spartan Education: Boys Activity

Find examples of the following:

• Tests of endurance
• Plutarch
• "women would test their baby’s constitutions by washing them in wine instead of water” – a test to see whether their baby is healthy and if so, the wine would make them stronger
• If the baby proved well-built and sturdy they instructed the father to bring it up. But if it was puny and deformed they dispatched it at the “place of rejection”.
• Boys had scant food to keep them from over-eating and had to steal to eat; if they were caught, they were punished not for stealing but for being an “unskilled thief” and would go hungry. 
• One story is that a boy was so determined not to be caught stealing a fox cub that he hid it under his cloak, letting his insides be clawed and ripped. Plutarch “witnessed many of them die under the lashes they received at the alter of Artemis Orthia."
• "the boys learned to read and write no more than was necessary"
• Xenophon
•  to not soften their feet, the boys "should harden them by going barefoot" as it would make it easier to climb, go downhill easier, and to be more swift
• The boys would also have to get past Spartans with whips to steal cheeses from the temple of Artemis Orthia, “to show that a brief moment of pain could bring enduring fame.” Lycurgus subjected growing boys to “the most demanding regime” and “as little free time as possible” to curb pride, insolence and temptation
• The boys had to go barefoot, so that they would become used to running, jumping and climbing without shoes. They also wore one garment all year to make them endure both heat and cold, and the Eirens were given enough food that no one overate or went “without experience of going short.” However, Lycurgus did let them steal to alleviate hunger, not because he could not provide for them but so that they would learn to stake out, sneak around and use spies, making them “more resourceful in obtaining the necessities of life and more prepared for war.”
• Plato
• “In addition, at the Gymnopaidiai, they have to show endurance, competing in the full heat of the summer.”
• “the endurance of pain – which is very much a feature of our society, in fighting by hand with each other, and in the ‘raids’ with many whippings resulting each time.”
• Competition between the boys
• Plutarch
• "Moreover, as they exercised boys were constantly watched their elders, who were always spurring them on to fight and contend with one another"
• The eirens would have boys judge each other and tell them who was best or strongest. A boy who did not answer was considered “as a sluggard whose mind showed not ambition to excel.”
• Boys were taught Laconian speech; Lycurgus had favoured short, sharp statements that expressed heavy ideas, so someone who babbled constantly would seem stupid as opposed to a boy who kept his mouth shut except to give sharp answers.
• Pausanias
• “They fight with fists, kick with their feet, bite, and gouge opponents’ eyes. I have just described the way they fight man to man: but they also charge at each other violently in a group and push each other into the water.”
• Ways of promoting comradery and equality
• Plutarch
• As soon as the boys reached 7, they would be distributed into troops and live together brought up together. They slept together by Squadron and troop on mattresses in which they made up for themselves.
• "The boys are accustomed to live, play and taught together all while learning how to live with one another."
• They were enthusiastic about song, which in style were “plain and unpretentious, while their subject matter was serious and calculated to mould character.”
• At festivals, the old men would sing first – “we were once valiant young men” – then the men in their prime – “but we are the valiant ones now; put us to the test, if you wish” – and finally the boys – “but we shall be far mightier.” Evidently even fun activities were meant to convince the boys to excel. The poets Terpander and Pindar portray the Spartans as “the most musical and the most warlike of people.”
• Xenophon
• “If an honourable man admired a boy’s character, and wished to become his friend in all innocence, and spend time with him, Lycurgus approved, and thought this was a very fine form of education. If however a man was clearly physically attracted to a boy, he saw this as a heinous disgrace, and ensured that there was no more physical love between men and boys as between parents and children or brother and brother. I am not surprised that many find this hard to believe (including Plutarch?) as many cities tolerate love between men and boys.”
• All the males were together referring 'himself as father, tutor and commander of each boy'- this rule promoted equality as then no one person would be better than everyone else.
• Kritias
• “Lakedaemonian boys drink just enough to bring the minds of all to cheerful optimism, their tongues to friendliness and restrained laughter…to eat and drink is appropriate to making them think and work, nor is there a day set aside for unrestrained drinking.”
• Custom to drink from the same wine cup and not to name people to drink their health.
• Ways of ensuring obedience and discipline to the state and its laws
• Plutarch
• ways of ensuring discipline and obedience, 'trained children to eat their food and not be fussy' ' not to be frightened of the dark or of being left alone' Desire to eliminate fear phobia and weakness to subscribe to culture of militarism and become toughest soldiers possible through obedience and discipline They had somebody to reprimand and punish the boy who slipped up.
• If a boy is caught, he receives many lashes of the whip for proving clumsiness.
• ‘the others kept their eyes on him, responded to his instructions, and endured their punishments from him, so that altogether this training served as a practice in learning ready obedience.’
• Plutarch, obedience: Captains of troops would punish the boys and they would accept it. “Their whole education was aimed at developing smart obedience, perseverance under stress, and victory in battle.”
• There was always someone nearby to reprimand the boys, and those two years older than them became their tutors (they were called eirens). They would serve the eirens meals like slaves and collect food. They eirens would punish boys in the presence of elders, and have to justify them if his punishments were too harsh or too light.
• Xenophon
• Lycurgus put a Paidonomos, a Spartan of the same class as those in power, in charge of the boys – he could “assemble the boys, inspect them and punish any faults severely. This official is also given a group of young men with whips for floggings when necessary; the result is considerable respect and obedience there.” If their instructors were gone, “any citizen nearby could give the boys whatever instructions seemed necessary and punish any misconduct.” As a result, all Spartans respected whoever was in charge.
• Lycurgus decreed that any boy who shirked his harsh training would lose all future privileges; thus, all other Spartans would make the boys do their duties so that they did not lose their privileges. The boys had to walk in silence, looking down, with hands inside their cloaks, to improve self-discipline – “you would be more likely to hear a stone statue speak.”
• If two Spartans were fighting, and a passer-by broke them up but they carried on, they were punished severely, so that “passion never becomes stronger than obedience to the laws.” “If a boy tells his father he has been beaten by another man, it is a disgrace for him to not beat him too.”
• Kritias
• they drink a moderate amount to to tie "their tongues to friendliness and restrained laughter"

Spartan Education System

 Overview

• Successful completion of the agoge was a prerequisite for Spartan citizenship. Public education was provided for girls as well as boys
• Spartan education was famed for its exceptional harshness and emphasis on physical skills and endurance. It was also characterised, however, by an astonishing degree of self-government, freedom and responsibility
• Furthermore, literacy in Sparta was higher than in any other Greek city-state, because only in Sparta was there a high degree of literacy among women as well as men. Spartan ("laconic") rhetoric style was admired throughout the ancient world, attesting to its high quality - a product of the agoge
• Spartan public education was the subject of extensive, and controversial, discussion even in the ancient world
• No other contemporary state provided for, and in fact required, its citizens to go through the same "upbringing" or agoge
• Unfortunately, because we must rely on descriptions of the system provided by outsiders, we have a kind of "mirror image" of the Spartan agoge
• Observers reported that which struck them as unique or different from education in their own cities, rather than reporting systematically about Sparta's system of education
• Equally distorting for the modern historian interested in Classical Sparta is the fact that most of our existing ancient sources in fact describe a Spartan educational system that was reinstituted in the Hellenistic period after what may have been nearly a century in abeyance
• It is often very difficult to distinguish "traditional" from "innovative" features of the described schooling
• Nevertheless, a number of characteristics of this education can be surmised

First Point

• It is important to note that collective education was considered so important that the  agoge was not only a compulsory prerequisite for citizenship, but all adult males bore an equal responsibility for rearing good citizens
• This was manifest in the laws that required boys in school to address all older men as "father" and gave any citizen the right to discipline a boy or youth under age
• All citizens were directly involved in the education of the next generation in another respects as well: at the age of 20, before being awarded citizenship at 21 and serving in the army, young Spartans acted as instructors in the agoge for their younger classmates
• Last but not least, despite the emphasis on public education, it would be absurd to think that parents did not take a very personal and intense interest in the education of their own offspring
• Numerous quotes demonstrate the pride and sense of personal accomplishment that Spartan mothers felt with regard to their sons

Second Point

• The principal goal of public education was to raise good future citizens
• One aspect of this goal is obvious: future citizens were by definition professional soldiers, and so the educational system very clearly sought to create physically hardened men, capable of enduring hardship, pain, and deprivation
• The emphasis of education was thus on athletic activities and military skills
• Less obvious and often overlooked by modern observers is the fact that the goal of producing good future citizens was not fulfilled by producing good soldiers alone
• Ideal future citizens were democratic, self-sufficient and independent. Thus, despite the harsh discipline, Sparta did not seek to break her youth or make them subservient
• Instead, they were taught democracy from the very start of their schooling - not in theory but in practice. On starting school at the age of seven, the boys were organized into units, teams, or "herds" - and elected their own leaders. Some sources suggest that they also "elected" their instructors from among the eligible 20 year olds

Spartan Government in Practice

Hetoemaridas - Gerousia

• There are almost no examples of individual Gerousia members directing decisions within Sparta, largely due to the external nature of our sources
• However, one such example does exist - Hetoemaridas
• He served in the period after the Persian Wars, when Sparta had lost control over the sea to Athens
• This example can be used to demonstrate the importance of the Gerousia and Geronted within the Spartan government

Activity

• What does this incident suggest about the power and influence of the Gerousia within Spartan society
• Diodorus
• A meeting of the gerousia was held at which they discussed war against the Athenians over the hegemony at sea. Similarly, when a meeting of the general assembly was held, the younger men and most of the others were very keen to recover the hegemony, thinking that if they could do so, they would benefit from great wealth - we were told by Herodotus that the kings had the final say over war and that "no one" questions their decisions - is Herodotus wrong? Or did the Kings originally have that power and then it was taken away from them in 5th century due to issues over corruption? (Note, many of the kings in the early 5th century BC - Cleomenes, Demaratus, Pleistoanax, Pausanias, were all indicted on corruption charges)
• Hetoimaridas was "a descendant of Herakles, who was well thought of by his fellow citizens for his character, took it upon himself to suggest that they allow the Athenians to maintain the hegemony, since it would not be in Sparta's interests to fight over the sea. He managed to make good points to support his surprising proposal and unexpectedly won over the gerousia and the people."
• Demonstrates that, as Plutarch and Xenophon told us, the Gerousia have incredible power over decision making, their respect in Sparta gives them political clout and influence - Hetoimaridas alone was able to sway the entire government against war

Pausanias - Regent

• Pausanias served as regent in Sparta at the end of the Persian Wars, since Leonidas' son, Pleistarchus, was too young to rule
• After winning a stunning victory at Plataea in 479 BC, Pausanuas directed the Greek forces in Asia Minor as supreme commander over the Hellenic League
• His heavy-handed approach would lose Sparta her command over the Greeks
• This example can be used to demonstrate the behaviour of Spartan leaders whilst on campaign, as well as the political interplay between the Ephors and the royal family

Activity

Plutarch

Thucydides

• According to both writers what accusations were made against Pausanias in his role as leader of the Greeks following Plataea?
• Plutarch:
• Pausanias was charged with misconduct, treating the other Greeks harshly
• The Spartans were so concerned about Pausanias' behaviour that they stopped sending out other generals - they preferred to have citizens who were self-controlled and had "traditional values" rather than "rule all of Greece"
• Thucydides
• Pausanias' harsh behaviour towards other Greeks had caused offence
• Sending secret messages to Xerxes - medising - he proposed a marriage to Xerxes' daughter and he offered to bring Sparta and all of Greece under his control - and he himself wanted to become the ruler of Hellas
• Pausanias worked with the Helots - he offered them full citizenship and their freedom if they helped him in a coup against the Spartan government
• Dressed like a Persian, attended Persian banquets, walked around with a Persian bodyguard
• Tried to have his own name inscribed on the Serpent Column at Delphi  
• How was Pausanias eventually punished? What does this incident reveal about the power relation between the ephors and the royal family?
• Thucydides
• One of the messengers to Xerxes, fearing for his life, relayed the message to the Ephors
• Some of the Helots also informed the Ephors of Pausanias' intentions
• Even then the Ephors were skeptical - "this was in accordance with their usual practice" "to never act hastily in the case of a Spartan citizen" "except on the basis of absolutely cast-iron evidence" - suggests the Ephors are thorough and don't jump to conclusions when making decisions, restrained in their power
• Pausanias was recalled to Sparta and thrown in prison ("Ephors have the power to imprison the king") but he was confident he could secure his release by bribery - shows there was some corruption within the government
• Ephors decide to convict Pausanias they will need a confession from Pausanias himself
• They laid a trap for Pausanias, he was invited by one of the messengers to a house that had a specially designed secret room, and the Ephors were hidden inside listening for the confession
• Pausanias goes to the meeting, asks about Xerxes' letters and incriminates himself
• The Ephors, with the ecidence, planned to arrest Pausanias near the Agora - shows their power?
• Reminds the other Spartans of the penalty for treason and avoids him escaping. Pausanias was already unpopular and so this gives the Spartans relief/satisfaction by seeing him come to justice, gives Pausanias a right to a fair trial, avoids accusations they were unfair, helps the Spartans understand why he was arrested
• However, when the Ephors plan to arrest him Pausanias realizes what is about to happen (maybe one of the Ephors gave him a secret signal?) and he attempted to run to the Temple of Athena in the centre of the city
• Pausanias tried to seek sanctuary on sacred ground, but the Ephors instead blocked the door
• He was starved out, and then just as he died he was dragged on the Temple steps - shows the Spartans do not questions the Ephors' decisions once they have been made

Archidamus - King: Stheneleidas - Ephor

• King Archidamus II reigned from approximately 476 to 427 BC, in the period after the Persian Wars during Athens' rise to power
• In 432 BC Sparta called a conference of her allies to discuss the growing hostilities between Athens and the Peloponnesian League
• During this debate (the Debate at Sparta) Archidamus and one of the Ephors, Stheneleidas discuss the prospect of a war with Athens in front of the Spartan assembly, and give their opinion on why war should/should not be declared
• This example can be used as a case-study to show how the Spartan assembly, kings and Ephors interacted with each other in practice

Activity

Thucydides

• What is the significance of Stheneleidas' actions during this debate? What does it reveal about the power and influence of the Ephors within the Spartan government?
• "Spartans, cast your vote for the honour of Sparta and for war" - Stheneleidas
• He is addressing the assembly
• shows that they have the final say, NOT the king.
• Stheneleidas then puts the vote to the assembly - they voted by acclamation but the Ephors could not decide which shout was the loudest
• this suggests the opinion among the Spartans was divided
• Stheneleidas then made the Spartans divide themselves into two groups - yes and not - the majority went to the opinion that the treaty had been broken "he wanted them to show their opinions openly and make them more enthusiastic for war"
• The Ephor had taken away the anonymity of the voters by removing acclamation and so the assembly votes for what they imagine would be the most socially-acceptable (they don't want to be seen as cowards)
• Thucydides confirms they vote "by acclamation, not voting"
• confirms that acclamation was used as the primart method of voting, and that acclamation provided anonymity. This incident reveals that the Spartan method of voting and decision making can be easily manipulated
• Shows us that the Assembly has more of a say over Spartan policy than we might imagine, but the speakers and the options presented to the Spartan are very limited - only the governmental bodies (Ephors, Kings, Gerousia) actually propose legislation. Confirms what Plutarch siad

Agis II - King

• Agis II ruled from 427 - 401 BC, taking over from his father Archidamus
• As king he largely conducted the Peloponnesian War with Athens, since his co-regent Pausanias was only very young
• In 418 BC he led the Spartans to victory at Mantinea, considered one of Sparta's greatest victories
• In c 412 BC he occupied Decelea in northern Attica on the advice of Alcibiades, conducting the war for years from this defensive position and contributing to Athens' defeat
• Agis can be used as a case-study to demonstrate the conduct/power of the kings on campaign, as well as the relation between the Ephors/Spartans and their kings

Activity

Thucydides - Agis Punished before Mantinea

• What punishments were enacted against Agis? What does this reveal about the power of the kings within Sparta?
• Ephors suggested at first to punish Agis by fining him 10,000 drachmae and pulling down his house
• Agis promises he will redeem himself by committing noble acts in the field next time
• Ephors change their mind on the first punishments, but they force Agus to be accompanied by 10 Spartans of the officer class, who will act as his advisors and "without their authority he was unable to take the army out of Sparta"
• Thucydides says this was a completely novel reform to the kingship
• Reinforces how much power the Ephors had
• A lack of trust in Agis as king is revealed
• The king does obey the orders of the Ephors
• Shows Ephorate oversaw the king's conduct on campaign, as other sources described
• Shows the Ephorate can change the constitutional powers of the kings when needed

Thucydides - Agis conducting the war from Decelea

• What does Thucydides demonstrate about the power the kings held whilst on campaign?
• "Indeed it would be true to say that the allies paid more attention to him [Agis] than the government in Sparta, since he had his army with him and could make himself felt wherever he went"
• Agis WAS the government in Sparta for a timebeing
• "he had the power to send troops wherever he wished, to raise fresh forces, to levy money"
• Agis has realised that whilst he remains in the field he is unaccountable to the Ephors
• Proves to us what we already knew - the kings have absolute authority on campaign, but are closely scrutinised and can be punished when they return home
• Agis has exploited this loophole

Brasidas - Ephor

• Brasidas was a general through the first phases of the Peloponnesian War (431-421 BC)
• His first achievement was to rescue the Perioikic town of Methone, for which he earned a laurel wreath in Sparta
• The following year he was elected as eponymous Ephor in Sparta, likely due to his popularity among the younger Spartans
• His campaign to Thrace in 424 BC marked a turning point in the war, and his unorthodox tactics and bold character brought him great renown throughout the Greek world
• He was honoured for his achievements at Amphipolis (where he died) by being buried within the city with full honours, named a new founder of the city and celebrated with annual festivities
• In Sparta, he was honoured with annual athletic contests and a cenotaph was erected in his honour next to Leonidas and Pausanias
• Brasidas can be used to demonstrate an ideal Spartan general, and the potential career path of an exceptional Spartan

Activity

Thucydides

Plutarch

• How does Brasidas' conduct differ with other Spartan commanders who came into contact with non-Spartans in the field?
• Thucydides
• Brasidas is known to be "upright and moderate" to thos ewho are non-Spartan gaining an "excellent reputation" which is different to the rest of the Spartans as he is regarded the "first" to sent out of his way
• The "gallantry of Brasidas" was one of the key factors in creating a "pro-Spartan" feeling among Athens' allies - and his excellent reputation left behind a conviction that "the rest of them were like him"
• Plutarch
• With the death of Brasidas, many non-Spartans went to go see his mother Argileonis. They themselves praise him with the comment that "no one else was like him", this showing that the other Spartans were not considered to be held on the same regard as him. His mother however disagrees with the claim that "Sparta has many better men than he"

Lysander - Mothakes

• Lysander was a Mothakes - though a Spartan he was not brought up in his father's household
• However, he overcame the social restrictions and eventually became Nauarchos (admiral) during the closing stages of the Peloponnesian War
• His victory at Aegospotami in 405 BC ended the war, and brought Lysander great renown both in Sparta and the wider Greek world
• Lysander is another example of the potential power of non-royal Spartans, particularly within the military

Activity

Plutarch

• How did Lysander retain his control as Nauarchos despite Spartan law?
• After his replacement as general, his successor Callicratides died in combat
• Sparta's allies then zealously asked Sparta for his recal. Lysander had planted some grand notions in their heads "the idea of aristocratic houses o 10, and counter-revolutionary bodies they would set up" and that these aristocratic clubs would rule in place of the democracies - "claimed that as soon as the Athenians were subdued they could overthrow the government and become absolute rulers in their own countries"
• To get around this, the Spartans sent out another admiral to stand as Naurachos and Lysander would remain second in command, but in reality he would take over as leader
• What differences in character can be seen between Lysander and Callicratides, his replacement?
• Callicratides is honoured by Plutarch as an upright and virtuous general, but as a slightly more old-fashioned and austere Spartan
• "They admired his virtue, much as they might do the beauty of some hero's statue, but they missed Lysander's whole-hearted support and looked in vain for the latter's keen partiality for the interest of his own friends"
• "Lysander by comparison with Callicratides seemed an equivocal and unprincipled character, and a man who disguised most of his actions in war with varius forms of deceit"
• "as long as Lysander remained in authority their extravagant hopes would be fulfilled"
• "which had a certain Doric simplicity and candour about it"
• How does Brasidas' conduct differ with other Spartan commanders who came into contact with non-Spartans in the field?

Thucydides

• How does Brasidas' conduct differ with other Spartan commanders who came into contact with non-Spartans in the field
• Thucydides
• Brasidas is known to be 'upright and moderate' to those who are non-Spartan gaining an 'excellent reputation' which is different to the resto of the Spartans as he is regarded the 'first' to sent out of his way
• The 'gallantry of Brasidas' was one of the key factors in creating a "pro-Spartan" feeling among Athens' allies - and his excellent reputation left behind a conviction that "the rest of them were like him"

The Apella/Assembly

 Membership

• This was the most democratic organ of the Spartan government
• All adult male Spartiartes over thirty were eligible to sit in the assembly
• Those who had lost their citizenship rights could not attend

Functions

• They met once a month at the full moon, in the open air, under the chairmanship of the Ephor
• Unlike the Athenian assembly, the Spartan assembly did not debate, discuss or amend proposals
• The members listened to a proposal made by the Gerousia, delivered by the presiding Ephor
• They would them either vote for or against the proposal

Spartan Ideal

• A Spartan was trained to obey and conform - NOT to take sides In public debates
• Lycurgus - was said to have outlawed rhetoric teachers
• This ethos is said to have given rise to the term Laconic - a word used to describe someone who talks very little

Limitations

• There was one undemocratic aspect of the Apella
• If the Ephors disapproved of a motion passed by the assembly they could refuse to proclaim it

Source Activity

Plutarch

• The Apella met in the open "for in his opinion these were not conducive to sound deliberations, but were harmful, they made them silly and gave them mindless notions" ' suggests Lycurgus was concerned that the assembly could be easily distracted and not very intelligent ' they lack importance as a result - and also suggests they were not important because they had no government building to meet in. Describing them as being childish, and saying it's pointless for them to meet
• "if the people should make a crooked choice, the elders and kings should set it aside" - suggests the assembly lack the power of the other government because the choice seems to be made for them by the other positions in government
• "Lycurgus permitted no-one else to make a proposal except the the kings and elders, and the authority to decide upon did matter to the people" - suggests they do have some importance as they do have the final say in decision making, but because they cannot propose laws themselves they lack the decision making capabilities that assemblies in other states would have. Shows the lack of trust that Lycurgus placed with the assembly
• After Lycurgus the assembly began to change and annul laws, so the kings Polydorus and Theopompus supplemented the Rhetra with this addition that the elders and kinds could set aside the decision of the assembly - suggesting they used to have more power under the Lycurgan reform but that power was diminished - "the people will vote with a straight rhetra"
• They met under the full moon, which isn't a regular occurence
• The fact that Lycurgus tries to avoid them being distracted suggests their views and decisions may be more important than the sources are suggesting
• Quotes Aristotle as a source
• Quotes Tyrtaeus on the Spartan Rhetra - Spartan source around the time of Lycurgus' reforms
• Increases the value of Plutarch's account because he is using contemporary sources to support his points - including a Spartan source
• He is using Aristotle's critical account - Plutarch not being a contemporary source means his views are shaped by the earlier writings

Spartan Government: The Gerousia: Body of Elders

 Origins

• The Gerousia was the oligarchic element of the constitution as written in the Politeia of the Spartans by Xenophon
• According to Plutarch, it came as part of Lycurgus' attempt to safeguard the state by 'allaying and qualifying the fiery genius of the royal office'
• It was more likely the result of a conflict between the kings and nobles about the time of the first Messenian War

Membership

• There were 28 members plus the 2 kings (30 in total)
• Membership was restricted to Spartans over sixty years of age, who were therefore no longer liable for military service
• It was a body of elders who held their office for life - and it was regarded as a reward for merit

Highly Honoured Position

• Members were elected by the Spartiates in the assembly
• It is not certain whether the candidates were from noble families or whether 'the best families' mentioned by Aristotle meant those of wealth and renown
• Membership of the council was highly honourable and a much sought-after office
• Plutarch states that they had to be 'the best and most deserving men past sixty years old'

Selection Process

• Selection was done by acclamation (shouting and clapping) and Plutarch describes in some detail the procedures for this
• The candidates were brought in one by one - their order of appearance being decided by lot
• In an adjoining room, selected people listened to the loudness of the shouting for each candidate
• The results were recorded in order
• Once the successful candidate was declared, he was taken in triumphant procession around the city to all the temples - he attended a special banquet and he was honoured in verse and song
• Aristotle disapproved of this method and called it 'childish'

Functions: Preparing Bills

• The Gerousia was a probouleutic body - this meant it prepared and deliberated on bills to be presented to assembly for voting
• If it was not happy with the assembly's vote on an issue it could decline to accept it, by adjourning - in which case the bill would not be passed

Functions: Criminal Court

• The gerontes (members of the gerousia), kings and ephors acted as a court of justice for criminal cases
• They tried cases of murder and treason, and imposed penalties ranging from death to banishment and fines
• This select body of elders exerted a great influence in political affairs

Source Activity

Aristotle

Plutarch

Xenophon

• List the functions of the Gerousia that the sources discuss
• What does each source state about the election process of the Gerontes?
• What qualities did the members of the Gerousia have according to each source? What position do the sources imply they had within Spartan government/society? (i.e are they respected?)
• Plutarch
• Roles/Responsibilities
• "with control over death and loss of citizen rights, and the most important matters generally"
• "sweeping authority in the state"
• Election Process
• Assembly was gathered to vote, some men were placed in a room as independent observers, candidates are selected by lot and presented before the assembly who cheer their preferred candidate, the observers listen to the shouts and note which they think is the loudest, and the loudest shout is the winner - trying to ensure anonymity among the candidates, and the election is fair
• After the candidate is selected he is paraded to all the sanctuaries of the gods followed bt young men and women who sang their praise. They were then taken to their mess and given double portions as a sign of the city's respect. The Gerousia member would then gift his extra portion to the woman who he held in the highest esteem. presenting it as a mark of distinction - she is then also praised by the women
• Qualities of the Gerousia, position in Sparta
• Chosen "not as the swiftest of swift, or the strongest of the strong, but the best and wisest of the good and wise" - military prowess is no longer relevant, but intelligence and character are prized above all
• "merits regarded as most outstanding"
• "lifelong reward for his merits"
• Xenophon
• Roles/Responsibilites
• "supreme judges in capitol cases in which they produce more respect for old age" - punished those who commit fraud, theft or harm towards those in their communities
• Election
• "by placing the election towards the end of life he ensured that they continued to exercise virtue into old age"
• "he did not take into account physical infirmity or poverty"
• "The contest of the Gerousia is correctly regarded as the most important a man can enter" - because the contest is about "nobility of character" rather than physical strength
• Aristotle
• Roles/Responsibilities
• "lifelong supreme power to decide important cases"
• "exempt from scrutiny even from the ephors" - Aristotle condemns this unaccountability
• Election Process
• "the way in which the choice is made is childish" - referring to acclamation (the shouting and clapping)
• Qualities/Characteristics
• "It is known that even the lawgiver himself has no confidence in them as good men"
• He suggests they are corrupt because they are open to "bribes" and "favouritism"
• It is questionable whether people so advanced in old age should be given lifelong appointments "the mind grows old no less than the body"
• Evaluation: The soures are vague about the specifics of their power. Why?
• Because political bodies like the Gerousia were quite common in the Greek world. The sources do not feel the need to describe their power in detail

Spartan Government System: The Ephorate

 Origins

• The Ephorate was a board of five ephors who were the chief magistrates and administrative officials in Sparta
• The word 'Ephor' means 'overseer'
• The origin of the office is unknown and controversy on the subject has continued among historians, who have put forward several theories

Historian Theories

• The ephors were originally priests and astrologers
• The ephors were created by the kings to carry on government while they were away at war
• The ephors were originally connected with the five villages and may have been chiefs who became advisers to the kings

Power in the 7th Century (BC)

• It was not until the 7th century that the ephorate won their great political power
• This slowly increased until they had taken over the main powers of the kings
• They had formidable powers as representatives of the people

Election Process

• Any Spartan over the age of thirty could stand for the office
• Elected by the assembly annually by acclamation - exchanging oaths with the king each month
• Took office at the full moon - after the autumnal equinox
• Upon appointment they would issue a proclamation to all citizens to shave their moustaches and obey the laws

Monthly Oaths

• The monthly oath was taken to uphold the office of the kings as long as they behaved in accordance with the laws
• They shared some of the powers with the kings and they were also empowered to depose them

Main Functions: Represented the Principle of Law

• The Ephorate had eight main functions:
• Checks on the kings (overseers)
• Dealing with foreign policy
• Dealing with army
• Control over magistrates
• Supervision over training
• Krypteia
• Dealings with the Gerousia (apparently 7 and 8)

No.1 - Checks on the kings

• As representatives of the people and a democratic element they were expected to:
• Keep a check on the kings - at home and abroad accompanying them on campaign
• Summon the kings before them for misdemeanours

No.2 Foreign Powers

• They dealt with foreign embassies
• According to Xenophon - before foreign representatives could enter Sparta they had to halt at the border and wait the permission of the ephors
• Once in Sparta, envoys made their proposals or demands to the ephors - who would then decide of they should go before the assembly

No.3 Dealing with the Army

• If war was declared, the ephors decided which age classes should go
• They issued orders mobilising the army
• They gave instructions to the generals and recalled them if they failed

No.4 Controlling Magistrates

• Their power over lesser magistrates was great
• At the end of a magistrate's year in office he gave an account of himself to the ephors - who decided if any punishment was in order

No.5 Supervised Training

• Had total control over training and discipline of the young
• Any misconduct was reported to the ephors and Spartan youths were given a regular physical examination
• The ephors also chose the three captains of the elite corps of the Spartan army

No.6 Krypteia

• The Krypteia (secret police organisation) was under orders from the ephors
• It has been portrayed as a tyrannical and vicious weapon - used to murder helots indiscriminately
• Plutarch and Aristotle both make mention of the role played by the Krypteia and the removal of the helot population
• This was a unique feature to Sparta, never adopted by other Greek States

Plutarch and the Krypteia

"The magistrates dispatched privately some of the ablest of the young men into the country from time to time armed only with their daggers... in the daytime they hid in out-of-the-way places and there law close, but in the night issued out into the highways, and killed all the helots they could light upon"

Aristotle and the Krypteia

"Upon entering office the ephors used to declare war on the helots - so that they could be massacred without offending the gods"

- In other words declaring them public enemies allowed them to be killed with impunity

Krypteia Membership

• More probably a body of eighteen to twenty year old youths - at the disposal of the ephors for special service
• Membership formed part of the training of the youths in that they:
• Served for two years
• Provided a useful method for removing undesirables - specifically helots

No 7&8 - Dealing with the Gerousia

• The ephors summoned and presided over sessions of the Gerousia and the Assembly and initiated legislation
• With the Gerousia - they acted as a court of criminal justice and carried out punishments
• They were criminal judges in cases involving perioikoi and they constituted the supreme civil court

Limitations of the Ephorate

• Answerable to the public body
• Despite the ephors' great powers - they were subject to certain restrictions
• They were elected for one year only
• When they became private citizens once again they could be called to account for their actions in an audit by their successor
• They could not be re-elected
• Thus, they were both democratic and oligarchic

Eponymous Nature

• One Ephor was always "eponymous" - his name was used at Sparta to signify the year. E.g: Thucydides treats the treaty of 421BC as follows:
• "This peace shall take beginning from the 24th of the month Artemisium, Pleistolas being ephor at Sparta, and the 5th of Elaphebolium, after the acount of Athens. Alcaeus being archon" 5.19

Activity

Xenophon, 4, 8, 11, 13, 15

Aristotle, "Ephors"

Plutarch, Lycurgus, 7

• Xenophon
• "Like tyrants or presidents (referees) at the games they punish an offender as soon as the offence is detected" - he uses the word tyrant but not in a negative sense. He is comparing them to referees at a game, ensuring the game is fair
• They call up the age groups for campaign
• They have the "right to inflict punishments at will", to "require immediate payment of fines" and "to depose magistrates during their term of office"
• They had to be present at any sacrifices to Zeus - they take no part unless the king invites them
• They were the only ones to sit when the kings were in attendance and took a monthly oath to the city of Sparta alongside the kings - that the ephors swear to allow the kings to rule, so long as the kings abide by the rules
• "Needless to say by watching each man's conduct they exercise a restraining hand on all"
• The Spartans realised that obedience is vital to the city, in the army and the home - when called upon by the ephors the Spartans would run
• During the education process any boys who fought amongst themselves would have to appear before the ephors
• Ephors would routinely inspect the boys to check their progress
• Attended meetings of the Gerousia
• They picked the hippegretai, who then chose 100 men themselves, and once approved they became the Hippeis - the king's bodyguard
• Aristotle
• "excessive, virtually that of a tyrant"
• "Even the Spartan Kings were forced to curry favour from them, and this has caused further damage to the constitution, for an aristocracy turned into a democracy"
• Democratic in the sense that any Spartan over the age of 30 can stand for the ephorate, and are voted in by the people
• Tyrannical - because they overstep the jurisdiction assigned to them
• Because they are selected from among the entire population they are "open to bribes"
• "Independently control most of the important business"
• The ephor being open to the people "kept them quiet" and "whether this is due to the lawgiver or good fortune is unclear, but suits the circumstances very well"
• Two ephors accompanied the kings on campaign - "the king's greatest enemy"
• "Supreme power of jurisdiction"
• Plutarch
• After Lycurgus' reforms, the Spartans realised that Oligarchy was the most dominant form of government in Sparta and imposed the ephorate as a curb on the undiluted oligarchy
• Plutarch implies that the ephorate is a democratic process
• Introduced 130 years after Lycurgus during the reign on Theopompus
• How and why do Xenophon and Aristotle differ in their opinions of the Ephorate
• Both say essentially the same thing about the Ephors. Both call them tyrants and both say the Ephors had incredible sway and influence over Spartan policy
• Xenophon
• Describes the Ephorate in a positive light ("they had a restraining hand over all" and they were like referees at the Olympics calling out any misgivings)
• Xenophon lived and wrote at the end of the Peloponnesian War in the late 5th century BC
• Many of Athens; intellectuals at this time were laconophiles
• On his campaigns as a mercenary commander, Xenophon endeared himself to the Spartan King Agesilaus and later moved to Olympia in the Peloponnese to serve as a Spartan ambassador
• There is strong evidence to suggest that his sons went through the agoge
• Aristotle
• Says their power was excessive. They were open to corruption and bribery and they gave the common people an undue influence over political matters
• Aristotle was not an Athenian, but he moved to Athens and studied under Plato in the 4th Century BC
• At this stage, Sparta had crumbled under internal disorders, as well as a succession of military defeats
• The rose-tinted view of Sparta had been shattered and Aristotle made a clear break from his intellectual predecessors by viewing Sparta through a critical lens

Spartan Kings: Dual Kingship

Overview

• The executive office was divided between two men [Basileis]
• The two kings were both:
• Co-operative and competitive with one another
• Equal in authority
• Served as a mutual check on the power of the monarchy
• Sparta was never without a leader - and therefore avoided what the Greeks called "anarchy" absence of leadership or of the government

The Agiad and Eurypontid Royal Families

• Coalition of two distinct tribes - each with its own chief or king - sometime in the 9th century BC
• One tribe lived around Sparta - its kings belonging to the clan of the Agiads
• The second tribe was probably from Southern Laconia - where the Eurypontids were the leading clan
• When the two houses decided to join politically - the kings were given equal powers under the constitution
• Gradually over time the kings' powers were restricted

Functions: Military

• The kings were supreme commanders of the army - only one was selected to lead a campaign the other was to stay in Sparta supervising domestic issues
• According to Herodotus this law originated about 507 BC - when Cleomenes and Demaratus were joint commanders of an expedition against Athens. There was a difference of opinion between the two commanders, and:
• "this divergence of policy gave rise to new law in Sparta. Previously both kings had gone out with the army, but this was now made illegal and it was further provided that one had to remain in the capital"

Military Cont

• The kings normally had the right to declare war - but never did so - and in the field they had the absolute right of deciding life and death
• Two ephors accompanied the king and kept close supervision on his leadership during the war
• If a campaign was a failure the king could be recalled to Sparta and heavily punished
• The king was also accompanied by a bodyguard of 100 picked men, and inclusion in this guard was the greatest honour

Functions: Religions

• Intermediaries between the gods and men - held their office as long as the gods were pleased
• If anything went wrong the king was to blame - every ninth year the ephors looked in the skies for a sign of the gods' approval or disapproval
• The kings were chief priests of Zeus Lacedaemonios and Zeus Uranios - the gods of their respective families
• Every month they offered solemn sacrifices to Apollo for the city
• "On the first and seventh days of every month each king is given a full grown animal to offer in sacrifice in the temple of Apollo, also a bushel of barley meal and a Laconian quart of wine"
• Before leaving for a campaign the king sacrificed to Zeus - if the omens were favourable the army could proceed to the frontier - where more sacrifices were performed for Zeus and Athena
• Fire from these sacrifices was carried with the king and army throughout the entire campaign
• Kings appointed two Pythioi - to consult the Oracle at Delphi and to present them with the Pythia's directions
• The pythioi were responsible for the safe keeping of all the oracles

Functions: Judicial

• Kings had limited judicial duties:
• Decided on marriages for orphaned heiresses
• Had control over all matters concerning highways; and
• The adoption of children

The Kings: Activity - Responsibilities and Duties

• Religious
• Herodotus
• The Kings were the heads of two priesthoods, Zeus Lakedaimonios and Zeus Uranos
• They could each choose two pythioi who consulted the oracle at Delphi and sat with the king at meals
• The kings take charge of the oracles received from Delphi
• Xenophon
• The kings could choose their sacrificial victims and were offered a pig from every litter
• Aristotle
• Military
• Herodotus
• Had the right of making war against whatsoever land they please. When they go on expeditions the kings shall go out first and return last - no man should hinder this decision
• "Absolute authority" on campaign
• Xenophon
• The King should lead the army on any foreign campaign
• When there's no battle expected the king marches from the front, when the enemy are met the king serves between two regiments
• The regimental commanders eat with the king, so that, since they are always present, they may take a larger part in any necessary deliberations
• Aristotle
• Constitutional (Political)
• Herodotus
• Kings were permanent members of the Gerousia (28 elected and the two kings)
• If the kings were not able to attend the meetings of the Gerousia then a Gerontes (member of the Gerousia) who was closest in relation to the king would vote in his stead - they would have an extra vote to count for the king's vote
• We can infer that the King's votes in the Gerousia were equal to the other members'
• In charge of roads
• Xenophon
• Each king had enough land that they had enough to sustain themselves, but not so much that they were rich
• "they do not greatly exceed the position of a private citizen" - Lycurgus did not want to encourage "a tyrannical attitude" in their kings
• On campaign two ephors accompany the king - watched each man's conduct and exercised a restraining hand on all
• Aristotle
• "They regarded disagreement between the two kings as making stability in the state"
• Offers wider perspectives if they have opposing viewpoints
• It avoids a tyranny that could be established were the kings to work together
• Because even Lycurgus "does not believe it possible to produce kings of the first quality" they restrict their powers
• This is why they used to send their "personal enemies" as ambassadors referring to the ephors
• Judicial (Legal)
• Herodotus
• The Kings decides whether a maiden inherited her father's land, also decided on who she was betrothed to if this had not already been decided
• If a Spartan wishes to adopt another Spartan it is voted upon by the Kings and the Gerousia
• Xenophon
• When on campaign the king solely focuses on military issues - lawsuits are referred to the hellanodikai (judges), applications for money to the treasures, and any booty is handed over to the auctioneers
• Aristotle
• Other Privileges and Perks
• Herodotus
• When a king dies a horse announces the death, women go about striking their copper kettles, a man and woman from each household must go into mourning. No political meetings for ten days. Thousands of Perioikoi and Helots would be forced to attend the funeral. The Spartans had a tradition of praising that king as the "best they ever had"
• At all sporting events they have special seating reserved for them
• 100 picked bodyguards attend the king on campaign
• Xenophon
• When a king dies, they are honoured not as men, but as heroes
• When on campaign the king and his entourage are maintained at public expense - the members of his mess, doctors, prophets, musicians, the commanders of the army and any volunteers
• The king had his own mess
• Aristotle