The Archidamian War: 431-421 BC

• The Archidamian War was the first phase of the second Peloponnesian War
• Named the "Archidamian" war after the King who led the Spartans during the first phases of the war, King Archidamus
• The Archidamian War composes the bulk of the second Peloponnesian War

Timeline

• 431-429 BC - Pericles vs Archidamus
• 429 BC - Plague in Athens and the deaths of Pericles and Archidamus
• 428-426 BC - Rise of the Demagogues
• 425 BC - the Battle of Pylos and Sphacteria
• 424-422 BC - Cleon vs Brasidas
• 422 BC - The Battle of Amphipolis
• 421 BC - The Peace of Nicias

Zeal for War

The war between Sparta and Athens stirred all of Greece into a frenzy - the two greatest powers of the Greek world were fighting for supremacy:

"And if both sides nourished the boldest hopes and put forth their utmost strength for the war, this was only natural. Zeal is always at its height at the commencement of an undertaking; and on this particular occasion the Peloponnese and Athens were both full of young men whose inexperience made them eager to take up arms, while the rest of Hellas stood straining with excitement at the conflict of its leading cities. No private or public effort that could help them in speech or action was omitted; each thinking that the cause suffered wherever he could not himself see to it. So general was the indignation felt against Athens, whether by those who wished to escape from her empire, or were apprehensive of being absorbed by it." - Thucydides, 2.8

Strategies: Archidamus vs Pericles

Archidamus' Strategy:

• To gather the entire Peloponnesian army (some 60,000 men) and march straight into Attica
• Operate a scorch-earth policy: burn Athenian crops and farmsteads, crush any towns around Athens that resisted
• Force the Athenian army out into the open plain in defence of their city
• Defeat the Athenian army in a pitched-battle
• Reliance on Sparta's land-based military power

Pericles' Strategy:

• Rely on the long-walls of Athens and the fact the Spartan army was inexperienced in siege warfare
• Bring imports of grain and food from the sea and into the Piraeus to make up for losses in Attica
• Whilst the Peloponnesian Army wasted time in Attica, the Athenian navy could sail out and attack the Peloponnesian coast
• Reliance on Athenian naval power and her superior wealth

First Invasion of Attica

• When King Archidamus of Sparta led the Peloponnesians into Attica for the first time, the Athenians took Pericles' advice and brought their women, children and household property into Athens, where most of them...
• "had to settle down in those parts of the city that had not been built over and in the temples and shrines of the heroes except the Acropolis, in the temple of Eleusinian Demeter, and some other places that were strictly forbidden" - Thucydides
• A number also settled in the towers of the walls, between the Long Walls and in the Piraeus. They sent their livestock to Euboea
• However, when they saw that 'their land was being laid waste in front of their very eyes', they felt outraged - especially the young, who wanted to march out and stop it. Violent discussions ensued and the city was in a thoroughly excited state. The Athenian people were furious with Pericles
• According to Plutarch, Pericles:
• 'behaved like the helmsman of a ship, who, when a storm sweeps down upon it in the open sea, makes everything fast, takes in sail and relies on his own skill and takes no notice of the fears and entreaties of the sea-sick and terrified passengers' - Plutarch
• Thucydides said that Pericles was so 'convinced of the rightness of his views about not going out to battle' that he endured the criticisms calmly and did not summon any assemblies for fear the people would make some foolish decision in their anger. He then sent out minor cavalry patrols, saw to the defences of the city and sent off a fleet of 100 ships to raid the coast of the Peloponnese
• Archidamus, realising the Athenians would not come out to face the Peloponnesians in the field, stuck to his own strategy of burning the Attic countryside, and did not make an attack upon Athens
• 'This delay brought the gravest censure upon Archidamus. Even during the levying of the war he had credit for weakness and Athenian sympathies by the half measures he had advocated' - Thucydides 2.18
• Both leaders were clearly struggling against their own people as well as each-other

Pattern of War

• Between 431 and 425 the conduct of the war followed a basic pattern:
• Sparta used her superior military forces in land-based actions, including the annual invasions of Attica (except in 429 and 426)
• Athens, following Pericles' strategy of relying on her long walls and her navy, refused to meet Sparta on land, but made raids on the coast of the Peloponnese and on the coasts of Sparta's allies. The fleet, active on the coasts of western Greece, won over Cephallenia and some coastal towns of Acarnania

Disaster Strikes Athens: Plague 429

Despite the initial successes of Pericles' strategy, an unexpected plague would ravage Athens two years into the war in 429 BC

• This was exacerbated by Pericles' strategy, which crammed Athens to its maximum capacity
• Up to 1/5 of the entire male population of Athens was killed in a year, the Spartans did not even invade Attica after hearing word of the outbreak
• Bubonic plague, typhus or typhoid have been the assumed culprits, although we are uncertain
• Thucydides himself suffered from the plague, and it ultimately killed Pericles
• Its effects on Athens' morale were devastated
• 'Its attacks almost too grievous for human nature to endure. Heavily did it weigh on the Athenians; death raging within the city and devastation without' - Thucydides 2.54

Pericles Under Attack

• The Athenian people, angered by Pericles' strategy and its seemingly detrimental effect on Athens, turned on their leader
• Terrified that the attacks now being levied against him would lead to his own ostracism from the city. Pericles stood in front of the Athenian assembly and addressed the people:

What arguments does Pericles make to justify his strategy and leadership to the Athenian people? Thucydides 2.61-63

• His plan involved suffering - the long term effects hadn't been felt yet
• In times of crisis people panic and rash decisions will be made as a result - he does acknowledge that the plague was a crisis
• The Athenians took his advice and followed it consciously - they voted for him knowing what they were in for
• "You took my advice when you had not suffered misfortune"
• "Your empire is now a tyranny. It may have been wrong to take it, it is now certainly dangerous to give it up"
• "With your navy as it is today nobody can stop you"
• "Those who are politically apathetic can only survive if they are supported by those who take action"
• "You Athenians cannot enjoy the privileges of an empire unless you also shoulder the burden"

The Death of Pericles

• Pericles' arguments subsided the Athenian's hatred of him, however he was still fined for misconduct . Ironically, he was then reinstated as strategos for the war.
• In a rather terrible sense of irony, the plague, which was still ravaging Athens, eventually claimed Pericles' life

Thucydides 2.65

1. What strengths does Thucydides identify in Pericles as a leader?
• Pericles had 'wisely led and firmly guarded' Athens for years. He had 'accurately estimated' Athens' strength at the start of the war, and his foresight continued to persist. He knew Athens should continue to take care of its navy, not attempt to expand the empire during the war, and not risk the city
• 'Pericles, because of his position, his intelligence, his known integrity, could respect the liberty of the people and at the same time hold them in check'.
• 'He never sought power for any wrong motive' so was able to speak frankly and honestly to the Athenians. He would cheer them up when they were too discouraged, and make them aware of danger when they were too optimistic
• While Athens was normally a democracy, 'power was really in the hands of the First Citizen'. 'He led them rather than being led by them'
2. What does Thucydides say happened to Athenian political and military leadership following Pericles' death?
• They went after personal glory and profit. When their policies were successful, they benefitted individuals, but when they failed they endangered the whole state. They fought and quarrelled, each in pursuit of the top spot, confusing state policy in the process. They were led by the people, rather than leading the people
• 'his successors...adopted methods of demagogy which resulted in their losing control over the actual conduct of affairs

The Beginning of the Second Peloponnesian War: Preparations

Spartan and Corinthian Preparation

Athenian Preparations

Archidamus suggested they invade and ravage Attica, drawing the Athenians out so that they could be defeated The Corinthians emphasised caution, not getting too confident They suggested building fortified positions in Athenian territory from which to launch raids (Epiteichismus) Build up Peloponnesian naval power (Corinthians had the most ships in the Peloponnese with about 100, Athens had 300-400) In the short term, entice Athens' foreign and mercenary sailors to defect with higher pay Finally begin to contribute money to the Peloponnesian League for a navy Foster revolts among Athens' allies to cut off their revenue

Pericles realised that if Archidamus spared his property, he would be under suspicion, so he declared that he would donate all of his property to the state if it were spared Pericles said that they should remain in the city, using the Long Walls for defence, and use their huge financial reserves (including 6,000 talents in savings and a golden statue) to ride out the war until the Spartans couldn't afford to carry on They should abandon the countryside; this completely counters Sparta's tactic Use the navy to keep a 'firm hand' on their allies; again, countering the Corinthian plan of inciting revolt They had thousands of soldiers and 300 triremes Thucydides was a general. His account of Athens' preparations can therefore be trusted

The Debate at Sparta and the Spartan Ultimatum

The Debate at Sparta

• Purpose of assembly = to hear the complaints of Sparta's allies and anyone who claimed to have suffered Athenian aggression
• The Spartans and the Peloponnesian League could then consider whether war against the Athenians and the Delian League was justified
• Key term in the Thirty Years Peace: "Neither side was allowed to make an armed attack on the other, if the latter wished to go to arbitration"

Corinth Denounces Athenian Imperialism (1.69)

"For all this you (Sparta) are responsible. You it was who first allowed them to fortify their city after the Median war, and afterwards to erect the long walls-you who, then and now, are always depriving of freedom not only those who have as yet been your allies. For the true author of the subjugation of a people is not so much the immediate agent, as the power which permits it but has the means to prevent it"

Who do the Corinthians blame for Athenian imperialism? Does this seem like a legitamate charge from the Corinthians based on what we have seen?

Corinth Speech Continued: The "National Character" of Sparta and Athens (1.70)

"The great contrast between the two national characters; a contrast of which, as far as we can see, you have little perception, having never yet considered what sort of antagonists you will encounter in the Athenians, how widely, how absolutely different from yourselves. The Athenians are addicted to innovation, and their designs are characterized by swiftness alike in conception and execution; you have a genius for keeping what you have got, accompanied by a total want of invention, and when forced to act you never go far enough... they are never at home, you are never from it: for they hope by their absence to extend their acquisitions, you fear by your advance to endanger what you have left behind. They are swift to follow up a success, and slow to recoil from a reverse. Their bodies they spend ungrudgingly in their country's cause; their intellect they jealously husband to be employed in her service"

Athens: Innovators, swift in executing plans, never at home (brave), swift to follow up success, sacrifice themselves for their country

Sparta: Procrastinators, too conservative, slow to act, too scared of losses

What contrasts does Corinth make between Sparta and Athens? Why do you think they deliberately characterise both states in this way?

Corinth's Threat

"Do not sacrifice friends and kindred peoples to their bitterest enemies, and drive the rest of us in despair to some other alliance"

• The Corinthians clearly hint towards the Delian League as the "other alliance", suggesting that if the Spartans do not act now the Athenians will begin to conquer Peloponnesian allies too
• This clearly plays to Sparta's fears of Athenian imperialism, and strongly hints at Corinthian manipulation of the Spartans in foreign policy

Athenian Rebuttal (1.75)

"Surely, Lacedaemonians, neither by the patriotism that we displayed during the Persian Wars, nor by the wisdom of our counsels, do we merit our extreme unpopularity with the Hellenes, not at least unpopularity for our empire. That empire we acquired by no violent means, but because you were unwilling to prosecute to its conclusion the war against the barbarian, and because the allies attached themselves to us and spontaneously asked us to assume the command. And the nature of the case first compelled us to advance our empire to its present height; fear being our principal motive, though honour and interest afterwards came in. And at last, when almost all hated us, when some had already revolted and had been subdued, when you had ceased to be the friends that you once were, and had become objects of suspicion and dislike, it appeared no longer safe to give up our empire; especially as all who left us would fall to you. And no one can quarrel with a people for making, in matters of tremendous risk, the best provision that it can for its interest"

What arguments do the Athenians make to justify their empire?

Athenian Justification of their Empire

"You, at all events, Lacedaemonians, have used your supremacy to settle the states in Peloponnese as is agreeable to you. And it was not we who set the example, for it has always been law that the strong do what they can and the weak endure what they must. Men's resentment, it seems, is more excited by legal wrong than by violent wrong; the first looks like being cheated by an equal, the second like being compelled by a superior. At all events they contrived to put up with much worse treatment than this from the Persians, yet they think our rule severe, and this is to be expected, for the present always weighs heavy on the conquered. This at least is certain. If you were to succeed in overthrowing us and taking our place, you would speedily lose the popularity with which fear of us has invested you, if your policy of today is at all to tally with the sample that you gave of it during the brief period of your command against the Mede. Not only is your life at home regulated by rules and institutions incompatible with those of others, but your citizens abroad act neither on these rules nor on those which are recognised by the rest of Hellas"

What arguments do the Athenians make to justify their empire?

Spartan Discussion following the Congress

Discussion took place but ended in divided opinion

1. Athens' alliance with Corcyra could not be considered illegal in the light of the Peace of 445 BC
2. Potidaea was a complicated issue: if there was to be someone to blame it was Corinth

King Archidamus and the Doves

"A man who had a reputation for both intelligence and moderation"

• He pointed out the dangers in rushing unprepared into a war against a much wealthier, better-armed naval power
• He suggested that the Spartans should not declare war immediately - rather approach Athens with their allies' grievances and in the meantime make new allies with financial and naval forces

"And the slowness and procrastination, the parts of our character that are most assailed by their criticism, need not make you blush. If we undertake the war without preparation, we should by hastening its commencement only delay its conclusion: further, a free and a famous city has through all time been ours. The quality which they condemn is really nothing but a wise moderation"

Sthenelaidas and the Hawks

"The long speech of the Athenians I do not pretend to understand. They said a good deal in praise of themselves, but nowhere denied that they are injuring our allies and the Peloponnese. And yet if they behaved well against the Mede then, but ill towards us now, they deserve double punishment for having ceased being good and for having become bad. We meanwhile are the same then and now, and shall not, if we are wise, disregard the wrongs of our allies, or put of till tomorrow the duty of assisting those who must suffer today. Others have much money and ships and horses, but we have good allies whom we must not give up to the Athenians"

What arguments does the Spartan Sthenelaidas make as to why war should be declared?

Final Decision put to the Assembly of Sparta

• Majority of Spartan votes indicated their belief that the Thirty Years' Peace had been broken
• War could only be declared by a majority decision of the Peloponnesian League - this was immediately called

"The Lacedaemonians voted that the treaty had been broken, and that the war must be declared, not so much because they were persuaded by the arguments of the allies, as because they feared the growth of the power of the Athenians, seeing most of Hellas already subject to them" (1.88)

Sparta's Main Concern

• There were no legal grounds for Sparta to declare war
• Athenian ambitions were to be feared and Athens had shown an unfriendly attitude towards Megara and the influence it could already exert across the Aegean
• What influenced Sparta was the need to maintain her own prestige with an ascendancy over her allies
• Her allies had been so insistent about Sparta staying inactive that if this were to continue she could no longer be their leader

The Spartan Ultimatum

Though war had been decided upon, the Spartans headed to Athens with one last ultimatum which:

1. "Ordered Athens to raise the siege of Potidaea"
2. Demanded that Athens "respect the independence of Aegina"
3. Said "That war may be prevented by the revocation of the Megarian Decree"
4. Ordered them to drive out the "Curse of the Alcmaeonidae" as in the family, of which Pericles was a member

Pericles Convinces the Athenian Assembly to Reject the Ultimatum

"There is one principle, Athenians, which I hold dearest, and that is the principle of no concession to the Peloponnesians. Now it was clear before that Lacedaemon entertained designs against us; it is still more clear now. The treaty provides that we shall mutually submit our differences to legal settlement, and that we shall meanwhile each keep what we have. Yet the Lacedaemonians never yet made us any such offer, never yet would accept from us any such offer; on the contrary, they wish complaints to be settled by war instead of by negotiation; and in the end we find them here dropping the tone of reason and adopting that of command. I hope that you will none of you think that we shall be going to war for a trifle if we refuse to revoke the Megara decree, which appears in front of their complaints. Why, this trifle contains the whole seal and trial of your resolution. If you give way, you will instantly have to meet some greater demand, as having been frightened into obedience in the first instance; while a firm refusal will make them clearly understand that they must treat you more as equals"

What reasons does Pericles give as to why the Spartan ultimatum must be rejected by Athens?

Athenian Refusal

• Athens sent the Spartan envoys away with the message that:
1. They would give the Megarians access to their markets when Sparta ceased expelling strangers from her cities and restored full independence to her own allies
2. They offered to accept arbitration on the various complaints under the terms of the Thirty Years' Peace Treaty on a fair and equal basis
• The Spartan envoys never returned to Athens, and could not submit to arbitration as she had declared the treaty was broken and would not risk the loss of her allies by taking such a step

War

War broke out in 431 BC when Thebans attacked Athens' ally Plataea

"In this affair of Plataea the treaty had quite obviously been broken, and now the Athenians made ready for war, as did the Spartans and their allies"

The Megarian Decree

• During the First Peloponnesian War, Megara had defected from the Peloponnesian League to the Delian League, and then back to the Peloponnesian League just before the end of the war. The Megarians had committed sacrilege by cultivating sacred land, and, in response, the Athenians banned Megara from trading with any Athenian ally
• The Megarians, though, claimed that the embargo would cripple them and create famine. They went to the Spartans, who decided that, having heard complaints from Corinth and now Megara, they would call a conference to decide how to react to Athens. They told the Athenians that, unless they lifted the embargo, they'd go to war
• Thucydides was very biased in favour of Athens, believing the Megarian Decree to be an excuse to go to war

Modern Interpretations

• Many historians, such as Robinson and Hornblower, believe that the decree was meant to economically ruin Megara, and that the Athenians were the aggressors
• Others, mainly de Ste. Croix, believe that the decree was relatively minor, and that the Peloponnesians made such a big deal out of it as an excuse to go to war. This view is shared by Thucydides

1. To what extent could Pericles and the Athenians be blamed for causing the war because of the decree?
• Thucydides: Pericles didn't want to make any concessions to Sparta and the Athenians were mostly against repealing the decision - The Megarians had cultivated sacred land, Sparta were going to war over a 'trifle' - the Spartans repeatedly refused to submit to arbitration and just pushed for war over Megara
• Aristophanes: Pericles did cause the famine, though his reasoning is made up for comedic effect - Pericles was upset that Megarians had stolen some prostitutes of Aspasia's so he invoked the Megarian Decree as a punishment - "Olympian Pericles" was too proud to revoke the decree and forced the Spartans, as the Megarians were starving
• Plutarch: Claims the decree was due to imperialistic ambitions of Pericles - wanted to punish Megara for defecting from the Delian League and his stubbornness forced the Spartans into war
2. What are the limitations of the ancient sources for understanding the significance of the Megarian Decree?
• Thucydides was a pro-Athenian general, Aristophanes was a comedian and Plutarch was not a contemporary historian