Friday, 25 October 2019

The Battle of Salamis 480 BC: Overview

Image result for the battle of salamis"
There is a wind at Salamis that still blows today. The Greeks would have known of this but the Persians would have been unaware. When the Persian ships advanced towards the Greeks, the Greeks waited for the south wind. The wind blew the Persian ships sideways (broadside), meaning that they were exposed and the Greeks could ram into them. The Greeks did this, which caused the Persians to panic and retreat. This was impossible for the Persians as they had so many ships that it caused a massive jam and none of the ships could escape.
The Persian forces waiting to massacre surviving Greeks were massacred themselves by the Greeks, as the Persian side had lost

The Battle of Salamis: Debates at Salamis Comparison

Reasons Themistocles gives for staying at Salamis:
  • Fighting at Isthmus was more open, and the Greeks had fewer ships than the Persians
  • The narrow waters of Salamis meant that the Persians could not deploy all of their ships and so favoured the Greeks
  • By retreating to Isthmus, the Greeks would be inviting the Persians to the Peloponnese and Greece would "no longer remain one country"
  • "Everyone will go home, and neither Eurybiades nor anybody else will be able to prevent the total dissolution of our forces. The plan is absurd and will be the total ruin of Greece." - Herodotus
How does he convince Eurybiades?
  • Themistocles threatens to sail the Athenians to Italy 
  • The Athenians had 200 ships, more than any other state, meaning that the other Greek states depended on Athens and wouldn't stand a chance without them
  • He told Eurybiades that he'd be dooming Greece if he retreated
Greek decision making:
  • Spent more time arguing than discussing tactics
  • There was a lot of dissension - they were too focused on their own survival, rather than the defense of Greece
What does Artemisia say?
  • "Spare your ships and do not fight at sea"
  • "If you keep the fleet on the coast...you will easily accomplish your purpose"
  • The Greeks have naval superiority
  • She advises to patiently wait out the Greeks, as they were running out of supplies and fighting amongst themselves (wait for them to destroy themselves kinda thing)
  • "I think it best that you march back and that Mardonius, if he so wishes...be left here with those whom he desires"
  • She tells Xerxes that if Mardonius fails and is killed it would not count as a victory for the Greeks because Xerxes would remain unharmed
What reasons are given for/against Xerxes staying (or leaving) Greece?
  • Mardonius offers to take 3,000 men and attack the Greeks while Xerxes and the rest go home
  • Artemisia said that if Mardonius failed, only a servant would be lost
  • If Mardonius succeeded, Xerxes could take the credit, as Mardonius was his servant
  • Xerxes had already achieved his original task of burning Athens
Does he listen?
  • Obviously not - he takes advice and then makes the wrong decision EVERY SINGLE TIME

Friday, 18 October 2019

The Battle of Salamis: The Debates Before Battle

Movements:

The Greeks:
  • The Peloponnesians had retreated to defend the Isthmus of Corinth, abandoning central Greece and Athens to the Persians
  • The other Greeks had followed suit, moving their navy to the straits of Salamis
The Persians:
  • Xerxes had moved through Boeotia and Attica overrunning the cities who had not yet surrendered
  • He finally captured Athens, burning its sacred temples and occupying the Acropolis after killing the priests
  • He then prepared for a further incursion into the Peloponnese to crush the last remaining Greeks
War Councils:

The Greeks:
  • According to Herodotus, the Greek commanders held a series of war councils on the eve of the battle
  • The councils centred on the question of whether to keep the navy at Salamis or move it closer to the fortified Isthmus
The Persians:
  • On the other side, Xerxes too held council with his generals on their next plan of action
  • Their council centred on the question of whether engaging the Greeks at sea would be a viable tactic
Bias in Herodotus:
Though Herodotus provides a detailed account of the debates on the eve of battle, there are issues with the reliability of these passages
  • His informants - those he would have interviewed to gain his information would at the time only have been young soldiers who could not have known exactly what was said at the generals' meetings
  • He also altogether presents the Peloponnesians, particularly the Corinthians, as either cowardly, foolish or both

Monday, 14 October 2019

Thermopylae and Artemisium: 480 BC

The Initial Greek Strategy:
  • When news of the invading force reached Greece, the initial Greek reaction was to send a force of 10,000 hoplites to hold position at the valley of Tempé near Mt. Olympus
  • However, when the size of the invading army was revealed, the Greeks decided to withdraw
  • Alexander, the king of Macedonia, also sent advice to the Greeks to not hold the position
  • The Greeks decided to retreat south, and hold a more favourable position
Thermopylae and Artemisium:
  • The decision was made to retreat to the far more easily defendable pass at Thermopylae, far to the south
  • Meanwhile, the Greek fleet would sail to the cape at Artemisium, a narrow pass of water between Euboea and mainland Greece
  • Combined, the hope was that these two very defendable positions would favour the Greeks and slow down the Persians
  • Eurybiades, a Spartan commander, directed the fleet at Artemisium with Themistocles
  • At Thermopylae, the Spartan king Leonidas was in command
Geographical Advantages:
  • The most important tactical factor to the Greeks was the difference in numbers
  • According to Herodotus, Xerxes' combined forces numbered roughly 5 million men whilst the Greeks only had 10,000
  • Though Xerxes' numbers have been exaggerated, it is clear that there was a huge difference in numbers between the Greeks and the Persians, which meant that the Greeks would have had no chance at winning in an open battle
  • Both the pass at Thermopylae and the narrows at Artemisium favoured the Greeks, since the Persians couldn't attack with their full force
Initial Skirmishes:
  • As the Greeks prepared defenses at Thermopylae and Artemisium, Xerxes' army marched south while his fleet proceeded down the coast
  • The Persians sent scouting ships to canvas the area and gather information on the Greek positions
  • These ships came across a patrol of three Greek triremes and captured them
  • The other Greek naval forces lost morale and temporarily retreated
  • The Persian ships continued to scout the area, setting up danger zones for hazardous areas
  • Once the Persians were confident that the route was safe, the rest of the naval forces set out into the open water
The Battle of Artemisium:
  • Storms were common at that time of year in northern Greece, which the Persians were unaware of
  • The Persians had no harbours and so when a storm hit, they were unprotected
  • On the 13th of August 480 BC, severe storms destroyed a third of the Persian fleet, which was of 700-800 triremes
  • Because the Greeks knew the area, they had taken refuge behind the island of Euboea, meaning that their fleet was unscathed
  • However, the Persian fleet was too large to be completely destroyed and so the attack still went ahead
  • After a bloody struggle, the Persian ships broke through the Greek line and so the Greeks retreated
  • Both sides suffered heavy losses
The Greeks Prepare:
  • When the Greeks saw Xerxes' vast army approach, the Greeks from the Peloponnesian peninsula desired a vote be taken to return home
  • Leonidas realised that to do this would probably result in the submission of all states in the direct vicinity
  • Instead, he ordered the Greeks to stay, inspiring them through the determined leadership of the Spartans
  • The Greeks also built a wall to funnel the Persians into the narrowest part of the pass
"The Beautiful Death"
  • Xerxes sent scouts to spy on the Greeks 
  • The scouts were shocked to see the Spartans combing their hair, dressing themselves up and exercising
  • When Xerxes heard this, he called on the exiled Demaratus for "advice"
  • "This is their custom: when they are about to risk their lives, they arrange their hair. Rest assured that if you overcome these men and those remaining behind at Sparta, there is no one else on earth who will raise his hands to withstand you, my King. You are now attacking the fairest kingdom in Hellas and men who are the very best"
The Fight: Day One;
  • Xerxes dismissed Demaratus' advice and bides his time, imaging that the Greeks will lose heart and run
  • After a four day stalemate, Xerxes launches his attack
  • "The Medes bore down upon the Hellenes and attacked. Many fell, but others attacked in turn, and they made it clear to everyone, especially to King Xerxes himself, that among so many men he had few soldiers. The battle lasted all day"
The Immortals:
  • Once it became clear that the Medes and the Cissians were not going to win, Xerxes deployed the famous Immortals. These were professional fighting men of Persia. They were known as the Immortals because when one of the 10,000 of them died, he was instantly replaced
  • They did no better against the Greeks
  • "When they joined battle with the Hellenes, they fared neither better nor worse than the Median army, since they used shorter spears than the Hellenes and could not use their numbers fighting in a narrow space. The Lacedaemonians fought memorably, showing themselves skilled fighters amidst the unskilled"
The Fight: Day Two:
  •  On the second day (Herodotus tells us), every force thrown against the Greeks was repelled and Xerxes began to worry
  • "They joined battle supposing that their enemies, being so few, were now disabled by wounds and could no longer resist. The Hellenes, however, stood ordered in ranks by nation and each of them fought in turn. It is said that during these assaults in the battle the kind, as he watched, jumped up three times form the throne in fear for his army"
 A Traitor Appears:
  • The Greeks knew that there was a very dangerous weakness in their defense of Thermopylae: although the mountains protected them on one side and the sea on the other, there was another pathway through the mountains that was well-known among the locals
  • A local Malian called Ephialtes betrayed the Greeks for money. Herodotus writes that he would be hunted for the rest of his life for this betrayal
A Time of Decision:
Once the Persians had traversed the pass, they prepared to attack the Greek forces. Meanwhile, worry spreads amongst the Greeks and Leonidas was faced with another decision
"It is said that Leonidas himself dismissed them, to spare their lives, but thought it unbecoming for the Spartans under his command to desert the post which they had originally come to guard. I myself am inclined to think that he dismissed them when he realised that they had no heart for the fight and were unwilling to take their share of the danger; at the same time honour forbade that he himself should go. And indeed by remaining at his post he left great glory behind him, and Sparta did not lose her prosperity, as might otherwise have happened"
The Last Stand:
  • In the end only a much reduced force remained to defend the Hot Gates: the Spartans, the Thespians and the Thebans
  • Leonidas led the Greeks for the last time into battle 

Friday, 11 October 2019

Greek Preparations 480 BC

What was the meaning of the Spartan oracle and how did it affect their strategy towards the Persians?

  • Either one of the Spartan kings would die or Sparta would be destroyed
  • This led Leonidus to lead 300 of his best men into battle at Thermopylae
What was the meaning of the Athenian oracle and how did it affect their strategy towards the Persians?
  • They would be safe within their 'wooden walls' - which they interpreted to mean ships 
  • Their built their fleet and became a Maritime power (they invested in 200 ships)
  • They should evacuate Athens
What terms were agreed upon by the Hellenic League?
  • All quarreling amongst the Greeks must end for the defense of Hellas/Greece
  • To send embassies to neutral states to convince them to join the cause
  • To send spies to Asia
  • For the Spartans to take control of both land and naval forces (the Athenians waived their claim)
  • "Once the war was fought to a successful conclusion, they would punish all men of Greek blood who sided with Persia and dedicate one tenth of their property to the god at Delphi" - Herodotus
Which Greeks Medized according to Herodotus?
  • The Thessalians, Dolopes, Aenianes, Perrhaebia, Locrians, Magnetes, Malians, Achaens of Phtiosis, the Thebans and all other Boeotians except the people of Plataea
Why did the Athenians agree to Spartan leadership over the Greeks?
  • They were more concerned about the safety of Hellas. If they argued over leadership there would have been a higher chance of defeat
Why were no demands for fire and water sent to Athens and Sparta? What message were Sparta and Athens trying to send?
  • The Athenians threw Darius' messengers into a pit and the Spartans pushed them into the well and told them to get it (fire and water) themselves
  • They were sending the message that they were not going to submit to Persia
What different reasons are given for Argos refusing to support the Greek cause?
  • They claimed shared ancestry with Persia, since Perseus was from Argos and he supposedly founded Persia
  • Herodotus suggests that the underlying cause was that they were under no threat, so they felt no need to stand up to the Persians - also they didn't like the Spartans
Why did the Thessalians submit to the Persians?
  • At first they were on the side of the Greeks, until the Greek forces retreated from Thessaly, abandoning the people - so Thessaly submitted to the Persians
Why did Aeginitans supposedly Medize? How were they dealt with?
  • They were supposedly 'anti - Athens' and so supposedly Medized out of spite
  • The Spartans, under Cleomenes, had tried to arrest the Medizing leaders

Sunday, 6 October 2019

Greek Preparations Links

Developments in Athens
Military Affairs
Themistocles
Hostility of Herodotus
Naval Policy
Laurium
Rivalry with Aristides
The Immediate Reaction
The Congress at the Isthmus 481 BC
Points agreed at the conference
Consultation of the Delphic Oracle
The Prophecy of Sparta: Herodotus 7.219-20
The Prophecy of Athens, Herodotus 7.140
The Second Athenian Prophecy: Herodotus 7.141
The Interpretations

The Interpretations of the Athenian Prophecy

Since the second prophecy sounded more favourable, this was the one first taken to Athens. At home, opinion was divided on its meaning, particularly in reference to trusting in "wooden walls" for their safety and the "death to women's sons" at Salamis
  • The professional interpreters wrongly decoded the prophecy as heralding Athens' defeat at Salamis, and claimed that the "wooden walls" referred to the Athenian Acropolis, which was fenced by a wooden wall at the time
  • Themistocles, however, interpreted the prophecy differently - for him the "wooden walls" referred to Athens' fleet, the fleet that he had convinced the Athenians to invest in only a few years previously
Thankfully for Athens, Themistocles' interpretation proved more favourable, and the Athenians trusted in their fleet for the safeguarding of their homeland

The Second Athenian Prophecy: Herodotus 7.141

The original Athenian prophecy was so gloomy that the Athenian theopropoi (oracle-seekers) refused to return home until they received a better prophecy from the oracle. The second prophecy goes as follows:
"Not wholly can Pallas win the heart of Olympian Zeus, though she prays him with many prayers and all her subtlety; yet I will speak to you this other word, as firm as adamant: though all else shall be taken within the bound of Cecrops and the fastness of the holy mountain of Cithaeron, yet Zeus the all-seeing grants to Athene's prayer that the wooden walls only shall not fall, but help you and your children. But await not the host of horse and foot coming from Asia, nor be still, but turn your back and withdraw from the foe. Truly a day will come when you will meet him face to face. Divine Salamis, you will bring death to women's sons when the corn is scattered, or the harvest gathered in."

The Prophecy of Athens, Herodotus 7.140

"Why sit you, doomed ones? Fly to the world's end, leaving home and the heights your city circles like a wheel. The head shall not remain in its place, nor the body, not the feet beneath, nor the hands, nor the parts between; but all is ruined, for fire and the headlong god of war speeding in a Scythian chariot shall bring you low. Many a tower shall he destroy, not yours alone, and give to pitiless fire many shrines of gods, which even now stand sweating, with fear quivering, while over the roof-tops black blood runs streaming in a prophecy of woe that needs must come. But rise, haste from the sanctuary and bow your hearts to grief"

Saturday, 5 October 2019

The Prophecy of Sparta: Herodotus 7.219-20

"Hear your fate, O dwellers in Sparta of the wide spaces; either your famed, great town must be sacked by Perseus' sons, or, if that be not, the whole land of Lacedaemon shall mourn the death of a king of the house of Heracles, for not the strength of lions or bulls shall hold him, strength against strength, for he has the power of Zeus, and will not be checked  till one of these two has consumed"

Consultation of the Delphic Oracle

  • Immediately delegations were sent to the most important states in the Greek world who had as of yet remained neutral. The other states began preparations to fight the Persians
  • As part of the preparation, the Greeks asked for religious guidance from the Delphic oracle, the Pythia, which had consistently advised non-resistance, probably to remain neutral
  • Athens and Sparta, committed to resisting the enemy, received depressing prophecies

Points agreed at the conference

In this hour of desperation, old rivalries ceased. Quickly the Hellenic states agreed points that they hoped would give them a fighting chance against the Persian offensive
  1. Sparta is to be given high command: "the Athenians waived their claim in the interest of national survival"
  2. All feuds and disputes would end. This put an end to the thirty-year hostility of Athens and Aegina, and combined their large navies
  3. Spies would be sent to Asia to gather intelligence on the strength of Xerxes' forces and to report on his invasion preparations
  4. Envoys would be appointed to negotiate with other Greek states in the hope of uniting, if possible, the whole Greek world and of bringing all of the various communities to "undertake joint action in the face of common danger"
  5. States which voluntarily submitted to Persia were to be tithed or fined. Individual medizers were to face trial

The Congress at the Isthmus 481 BC

  • In 481 BC, when Xerxes' invasion had seemed imminent, those states who were willing to resist Persia looked to Athens and Sparta, the two main enemies of Xerxes, for leadership
  • Invitations were sent out to 'patriotic' Greek states to attend a conference at the Isthmus of Corinth
  • 31 states (out of more than a hundred) willing to help in the defense of Greece, attended
  • They styled themselves as the "Hellenic League", those loyal to the land of Helen. It was the first time that they had referred to themselves as "Hellenes" (Greeks)

The Immediate Reaction

  • In 480 BC, Xerxes crossed the Hellespont with his forces and began his march into Europe
  • Before the march, Xerxes had sent out ambassadors to the states of Greece with a demand for "earth, water and a further order to prepare entertainment for him"
  • States in the most direct proximity to the invasion force surrendered immediately (medized), including the Thessalians, Locrians and almost all of the Boeotians

Rivalry with Aristides

Themistocles' proposal did not go unchallenged. He had to overcome his main political rival, Aristides.
  • Themistocles, knowing the Athenians would not understand the long-term investment against Persia, appealed instead to the anger felt in the immediate war with Aegina
  • With a careful use of propaganda, Themistocles was eventually able to have Aristides ostracised, thus paving the way for Athens to spend the Laurium silver on naval investments
  • Herodotus said that this decision "saved Greece by forcing Athens to become a maritime power"

Friday, 4 October 2019

Laurium

  • In the early 480s the Athenians had found new, rich reserves of silver at their mines in Laurium
  • The find had been substantial, and an influx of wealth entered Athens
  • Initially, the Assembly, led by the aristocrat Aristides proposed the surplus be spread evenly amongst the citizens, at 10 drachma per head (a minimal amount)
  • Themistocles however suggested a counter-proposal: that the money be used to fund the construction of a powerful new navy, some 100-200 ships strong

Naval Policy

Themistocles' most important and famous achievements before the Persian wars were in regard to his naval policies
  • Themistocles had served at Marathon and realised that the battle had only been a precursor to future conflicts
  • He realised that in a future invasion dominance of the sea would be vital to ensuring victory
  • From 493 BC onwards he began his attempts to convince the Athenians to adopt a stronger naval policy

The Hostility of Herodotus

  • It is important to note that Herodotus (a friend of the Alcmaeonidae, who were hostile towards Themistocles), was generally unfavourable to Themistocles, focusing on some of his most dubious ambitions during the war period. However, even he cannot hide Themistocles' greatness in his history.
  • Other writers were more favourable: Plutarch says that he was held in great affection by the people, whilst Thucydides called him a man of "unmistakable natural genius"

Themistocles

One of the most prominent politicians to rise in Athens at this time was Themistocles.

  • He was born of mixed parentage: his father Neocles was a lesser aristocrat while his mother was believed to be a non-Greek, possibly Thracian
  • His first post was in 493 BC as Archon, where he began a construction project to fortify the Piraeus, which was the main harbour in Athens. He hoped to eventually unite Athens with the port by creating "Long walls" that would connect the city to the sea. The Persian war put a halt to this construction and it was completed after

Military Affairs

Constitutional:

487 BC: constitutional changes made the archons (administrators in Athens) selected by lot. This meant that the strategoi (military generals) became a far more prized position for politicians, since it was still an elected office.

War with Aegina

Meanwhile, a war with Athens' main rival, Aegina, had continued for over a decade. The war had been conducted largely at sea, but the Athenians had been unable to overcome the far more powerful Aeginetan fleet and had to borrow 20 ships from Corinth

Developments in Athens

In the decade after Marathon, internal political struggles between members of leading families, to influence the assembly, continued.
Ostracism became an easy tool for politicians to use to oust rivals, whilst high profile statesmen such as Miltiades found themselves under constant scrutiny in Athens

The Debate at Persia 484 BC

What motives does Xerxes give for wishing to undertake his expedition against the Greeks?

Xerxes had various motives for wanting to invade Greece (according to Herodotus):
  • He wanted revenge for Marathon and Sardis -"we Persians have never remained inactive"
  • He wanted to live up to his predecessors and be remembered like them, as well as fulfilling his father's oath
  • The Aleuadae (royal family of Thessaly) promised Xerxes "zealous assistance" if he chose to invade Greece
  • Mardonius kept trying to convince him to invade (for Mardonius wanted to be Satrap of Greece once it had been conquered)
  • He had dreams that convinced him to invade
  • He felt a responsibility to preserve the Persian way of life
  • Athens was the only state able to resist the Persian Empire
Reasons to invade according to Mardonius:
  • Persia had still not taken revenge on Greece or Ionia for the Battle of Marathon
  • It was an easy conquest as the Greeks were unlikely to resist
  • "Your name will be famous throughout the world"
  • The Greeks had slender resources and "absurd" warfare
  • Xerxes' empire would spread across the world
  • The Persians have better strategy
  • The Greeks fight amongst themselves (Pugnacious)
Reasons against invasion according to Artabanus:
  • Darius made the mistake of trying to conquer the Greeks
  • Darius couldn't defeat the Scythians and the Greeks were much stronger than them
  • The army could be cut off at Hellespont
  • Often a great army is destroyed by a little one
  • It was an unnecessary risk as the Greeks were valiant fighters on land and sea
  • The Athenians alone had defeated the Persian army before
This information comes from Herodotus' description of events, which means that it is not the most reliable of sources as he invented the speeches that this information is taken from and only actually knew the basic points.

The Rise of Xerxes

The Aftermath of Marathon:

  • The battle of Marathon was the first real check to Persia's plans for western expansion
  • Darius however was not deterred. He was more determined than ever on revenge against Athens
  • Darius realised that far greater forces and more careful preparations would be necessary next time. These massive preparations were put into effect almost immediately
  • However, any immediate designs on Greece would need to be halted: in 486 BC Darius died suddenly, and the throne passed to his son and heir: Xerxes

Darius' Preparations: Herodotus 7.1

"When the news of the battle of Marathon reached Darius, the son of Hystaspes and king of Persia, his anger against Athens, already great enough on account of the assault on Sardia, was even greater, and he was more than ever determined to make war on Greece. Without loss of time he dispatched couriers to the various states under his dominion with orders to raise an army much larger than befoe; and also warships, transports, horses and grain. So the royal command went round; and all Asia was in an uproar for three years, with the best men being enrolled in the army for the invasion of Greece, and with the preparations =. In the year after that, a rebellion in Egypt, which had been conquered by Cambyses, served only to harden Darius' resolve to go to war, not only against Greece but against Egypt too"

Xerxes I

  • Xerxes was Darius' son by his wife Atossa, a descendant of Cyrus the Great
  • Xerxes had some prior experience in administration: he had governed Babylon for his father in the 12 years before his accession
  • However, Darius' untimely death meant that Xerxes had not yet been fully groomed for the roles and responsibilities of kingship
Xerxes' Inscription from Persepolis, from the Gate of All Nations in Persepolis
  1. Ahura Mazda is a great god, who created this earth, who created that sky, who created man, who created happiness for man, who made Xerxes king, one king of many, one lord of many
  2. I am Xerxes, the Great king, king of kings, king of lands containing many men, king of this great earth far and wide, son of Darius the king, an Achaemenid
  3. Xerxes the king says: 'By the favour of Ahura Mazda, I built this Gate of All Lands. Much other good (construction) was built within this (city of) Parsa, which I built and which my father built. Whatever good construction is seen, we built all that by the grace of Ahura Mazda'
  4. Xerxes the king says: 'May Ahura Mazda protect me and my kingdom and what was built by me, and what was built by my father, that also may Ahura Mazda protect'

Early Reign: Problems

Upon assuming the throne, Xerxes' Commander-in-Chief, Mardonius, pressured him into renewing the campaign against Greece that his father was planning. However, a series of revolts throughout the Persian Empire delayed the preparations

Egypt 484 BC:
An insurrection before Darius' death had meant that Egypt had been governed by a usurper for two years. Xerxes crushed the revolt by ravaging the Nile Delta, a heavy handed approach likely due to the necessity to crush any chances of another insurrection when Xerxes finally invaded Greece

Babylon 484-3 BC:
Nationalist pretenders had led Babylon to revolt. Xerxes led a military campaign to recapture the satrapy, which fell a year later to Persian forces. Violent repression ensued: Babylon's fortresses were torn down, its temples pillaged and the statue of Marduk, patron god of the city, was destroyed


The Significance of Marathon

For the Persians:

  • The Battle of Marathon was the first real check to Persia's plans for western expansion
  • Although it left the Persians weakened for the moment, it was only a temporary setback and did not deter them from making another attempt
  • Darius was more determined than ever
  • They had learnt a great deal about the Greeks, and realised the mistake in their strategy. In any future invasion they would return to the plan of Mardonius (a combined military and naval advance around the northern Aegean)
  • They believed that far greater forces and more careful preparations would be necessary next time. These massive preparations were put into effect almost immediately

For the Greeks:

  • The moral victory for Athens was far greater than the military victory. They believed "the gods had been with them" and would continue to help them in any future confrontation. This built up their confidence
  • The Greeks no longer believed that the Persians were unbeatable and they would be more inclined to join in a common cause if the Persians attacked again. By their examination of the battlefield, the Spartans had learnt something of the conditions under which the Persian infantry could be defeated
  • However, in their optimism, the Greeks underestimated the future danger to them, and continued their quarreling. They made no plans to defend themselves, despite adequate warnings of the Persian activities. The exception to this was the Athenian statesman Themistocles who, the Greek biographer Plutarch says, believed that Marathon was "only a prelude to a far greater struggle".
  • Many saw Marathon as a victory for democracy. Changes occurred from 487 BC , when the strategoi began to be elected by the whole people; the archons from that time onwards were selected by lot. This meant that the strategoi greatly increased in importance
  • Athens gained in prestige; it was the beginning of its emergence as the leading state in Greece, although it was forced to accept Spartan military and naval leadership until 479 BC
  • Marathon almost immediately acquired a mystique, and the image of the "men of Marathon" took on heroic proportions

The Battle of Marathon 490 BC - Extra Detail

What actions do the Persians take towards other Greeks on their approach to Athens?

  • They captured Naxos, enslaving those who didn't escape and burning the temples. They did this because they had tried to conquer Naxos before and had failed (10 years previously)
  • Datis ordered the ships not to anchor at Delos, but opposite at Rhenaea. He said that he would cause no harm at Delos because it was the birthplace of Apollo and Artemis and he respected the Greek culture. Instead, he piled 300 talents of frankincense upon the altar and burned it as an offering. He did this because Delos had no part in the Ionian revolt and didn't try to fight the Persians. This was intended to send the message that if people were to submit , they wouldn't be harmed and would even be respected
  • The Persians fought at Eretria for six days. Two well know Eretrians betrayed their town to the Persians (Euphorbus and Philagrus)
  • The Persians stripped the temples and burned them as revenge for the burning of the temples of Sardis, enslaving the people. This was all done for revenge as Eretria was involved in the Ionian revolt

Why did the Persians choose the plain of Marathon to fight the battle?

  • It was the Attic territory nearest to Eretria and was the best ground for cavalry and archers (which the Persians used a lot)
  • The Persians outnumbered the Athenians 30,000:11,000, meaning that a big open space was the best choice for them as they could swarm the enemy
  • The beachfront meant that the Persian ships had access to the battlefield (they had 600 warships)
What reasons did the Spartans give for not providing assistance in the battle? What may be another reason for this?
  • The Spartans said that they couldn't march under a full moon, so they had to wait for it to pass
  • As the Helot slaves outnumbered the Spartans 20:1, they feared a revolt if they left for too long
  • There was also an underlying rivalry between Athens and Sparta
What did Miltiades say would be the outcome if Athens fought/refused to fight?

If they did:
  • Athens would earn its freedom and would rise to preeminence over all Greek states
If they didn't:
  • Athens would be enslaved and Hippias would return and take over
  • Refusing to fight could embolden the Persian sympathisers in Athens
What evidence is there for Greeks 'medizing' (changing sides) in Herodotus' account?
  • The Alcmaeonidae were accused of signalling to the Persians with shields
  • However, Herodotus doesn't believe this, as according to his account, the Alcmaeonidae hated tyrants and so would never help them
  • Two Eretrians betrayed their city to the Persians

Why did the Athenians and Plataeans win the Battle of Marathon?

Strategy and Site

The choice of Marathon proved suitable for the Athenians, as its strategic position, on the heights commanding both roads to Athens, allowed them to wait in safety until the right moment to attack.

Miltiades grasped the right time to engage the Persians, when he was informed that the Persian cavalry was absent. The fact that the expert Persian cavalry took no part in the battle was one of the significant reasons for the Greek victory

Leadership

Callimachus, as an elected commander-in-chief, listened to the advice of Miltiades, who had first hand knowledge and experience of Persian fighting methods and arms.

The political leadership of Callimachus and Miltiades in convincing the Athenian Assembly that they should send an army to Marathon prevented Miltiades' enemies from giving aid to the Persians 

Difficulty of Escape

Miltiades knew the Persians would position their best troops in the centre, and the disposition of his infantry allowed the wings to encircle the stronger Persian centre. The charge of the Greek Hoplites created surprise and confusion among the Persians (for this was the first time in history that the Greeks had charged into battle), as well as allowing the Greeks to get close to the Persian bowmen before the latter could release their barrage of arrows

The Persians were confined between the sea and the hills and their only chances of escape were to flee to the north (where many perished on the edge of the great marsh) or to reach their ships, which were standing offshore

Skill, discipline and arms of the Athenian and Plataean Hoplites

Although only citizen soldiers, the Greek hoplites were far more disciplined than their Persian counterparts and also better protected, with their bronze-visored helmets, solid bronze breastplates, shields and javelins

The Persians were generally lightly clad, with wicker shields and bows and arrows, although sometimes Persians had body armour of scales sewn to leather vests

Fear of Sparta's arrival

The possibility of the Spartans marching to Marathon had a real influence on the campaign by forcing the Persians and Athenians to hurry up their operations

The Greek's defense of their freedom

Freedom to rule themselves in their own way, without a tyrant or an 'oriental barbarian' overlord, was the motivating factor behind the young democracy's stand. In defending their homeland, the Athenians proved more solid and united than the opposition had hoped

The Battle of Marathon: 490 BC (Powerpoint info)

Before Marathon:
  • Darius, king of Persia, had sworn revenge on Athens for its part in the Ionian Revolt
  • 492 BC - an expedition, under the commander Mardonius, establishes a Persian foothold in Europe
  • 491 BC - Persian ambassadors demand Earth and Water from states in Greece as a sign of submission. The demands were rejected, particularly by Athens and Sparta
A Renewed Offensive:
Bolstered by the success of the previous expedition, in 490 BC Darius launched a renewed invasion of Greece. 30,000 Persians set off for a second invasion. Their aim: Athens and Eretria
Among the commanders were:
  • Artaphernes - governor of Sardis
  • Datis - a distinguished general and commander
  • Hippias - a deposed tyrant of Athens who was living in exile in Persia
The Cyclades:
The Persian's first target were the islands of the Cyclades, islands in the centre of the Aegean that stand opposite Athens and mainland Greece
  • The Cyclades were only a step away from Athens and Eretria
  • The Persians could have a base with which to launch attacks into mainland Greece
  • They could also punish Naxos, which had resisited a Persian assault in 499 BC
The Fate of Eretria:
"At the news of the Persian approach the people at once called to Athens for help...nevertheless... things in Eretria were not in a healthy state"
  • The Persians fiercely besieged the city, and after six days of fighting stormed the walls
  • Once inside, the Persians plundered the city, burning the temples and sanctuaries in revenge for the burning of Sardis
  • Citizens who were captured were enslaved, as Darius had ordered
Athens appeals to Sparta:
Alarmed by the fall of Eretria and knowing that they would be the next target, the Athenians appealed to Sparta for aid in defending their city
A runner called Pheidippides ran 150 miles to Sparta and requested aid

The Persian landing at Marathon:
The Persians, with around 600 warships, beached in the bay at Marathon
  • It was a large and natural harbour that could accommodate the large fleet
  • It was mostly flat land that favoured the Persian's larger army
The Athenians, supported by a contingent of Plataeans, marched out to meet them
  • They occupied the foothills to the south of the bay
  • They were commanded by ten strategoi, each commanding 1,000 troops
Athenian Strategy and Leadership:
"Amongst the Athenian commanders opinion was divided"
There were ten Athenian strategoi (generals) at Marathon, elected by each of the ten tribes that the Athenians were divided into. Amongst these were:
  • Miltiades - an ex Athenian tyrant who knew the Persians personally
  • Callimachus - polemarch (chief strategist)
  • Themistocles
  • Aristides
Greek Disposition:
Strength: 10,000 Athenians and 1,000 Plataeans 
Troops: The Hoplite, heavily armoured warriors who fought in a Phalanx formation. They were armed with a shield (hoplon) and a spear

The Phalanx:
  • Greek hoplite warriors in battle formed into ranks called the Phalanx, which involved overlapping shields and spears to form a wall which offered maximum protection to the warriors
Persian Disposition:
Strength: 25-30,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry
Troops: far more lightly armoured skirmishers
They relied more on archers and cavalry rather than long melee encounters

Initial Stalemate:
Initially, neither side wished to open the hostilities, and so for approximately five days there was a stalemate
  • Miltiades wanted to stage a far more direct assault, but this plan wasn't fully supported by the strategoi
  • The stalemate also favoured the Greeks, as they were waiting for the Spartans to arrive
  • Datis decided that he would move some of his troops around the Athenian forces and attack the now undefended Athenians
  • It was now that Miltiades convinced Callimachus to attack, and so the battle commenced
Miltiades' Strategy:
  • Miltiades recognised a key weakness in the Greek forces: whilst they were superior fighters, they lacked in numbers, meaning that the Persians could easily outflank them
  • Therefore he changed the traditional Phalanx formation, stretching the line out from its usual eight man deep formation
  • Instead, he placed the bulk of the troops on the wings, hoping that the stronger numbers on the flanks would help them envelop the enemy

Darius' Inscription

"By the favour of Ahuramazda these are the countries which I seized outside of Persia; I ruled over them; they bore tribute to me; they did what was said to them by me; they held my law firmly; Media, Elam, Parthia, Aria, Bactria, Sogdia, Chorasmia, Drangiana, Arachosia, Sattagydia, Gandara, India, the haoma drinking Scythians, the Scythians with pointed caps, Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt, Armenia, Cappadocia, Lydia, the Greeks, the Scythians across the sea, Thrace, the sun hat-wearing Greeks, the Libyans, the Nubians, the men of Maka and the Carians"

Through the various inscriptions from the Nasq-e Rustam, Darius emphasises different characteristics that he wishes to be remembered as having. He paints himself as 'chosen' by God "By favour of Ahura Mazda", righteous "I am a friend of the Right", diplomatic "Does not convince me, until I hear the testimony of both", skilled/confident "good horseman", "good bowman", "good commander" and "good spearman", intelligent "bestowed wisdom and courage upon Darius the king", collected "I am not hot tempered" and renowned "the spear of the Persian has gone far"

Thursday, 3 October 2019

Nasq-e Rustam

  • About 6km north of Persepolis, the great royal city built by Darius
  • it is the burial site of four Persian kings, including Darius.
  • Carrying him on the throne are human figures, each one representing the lands of the empire. It is thought that Darius had this tomb built during the final years of his reign
  • The inscriptions at Nasq-e Rustam are just one of a number of Persian royal inscriptions, in which Persian kings set out their ideology
  • It should be said that there were no historians in the Persian Empire, and so we are very limited in our access to sources on the Persian side
  • The royal inscriptions are in fact out most detailed written documents from the Persian perspective. No royal inscription makes any mention of a military campaign against in the Greek world - the only mention of the Greeks is simply as one of the subject peoples of the empire

The Ionian Revolt: What happened next?

How do Sparta and Athens respond?
  • Upon learning that the journey to Ionia would take 3 months, Cleomenes (one of the Spartan kings) refused to help. When Aristagoras offered him 50 talents, Cleomenes' daughter Gorgo (only 8 or 9 years old at the time) warned him that the offer could corrupt him and so Cleomenes refused
  • The Athenians reacted differently. Upon Hippias' return to Asia he tried to convince Artaphernes (the satrap of Ionia) to capture Athens for Darius. The Athenians sent to Sardis to urge the Persians to not listen to Hippias. Artaphernes threatened them and said that they had to take Hippias back. The Athenians refused and accepted the consequence of open hostility to Persia.
  • It was at this time that Aristagoras arrived in Athens and made a speech before the people - telling them of the gold, silver, bronze and fine clothing in Persia, as well as the fact that the Persians fought without armour, with basic weapons. Once they were persuaded to accept the deal, the Athenians sent 20 ships to Ionia under the command of Melanthius
What actions did Darius take towards the Ionians following the revolt?
  • He superseded all of his other generals and sent Mardonius (son of Gorbryas and Darius' sister) down to the coast in command of a very large military and naval force. When he reached Ionia, he suppressed all of the Ionian tyrants and set up democratic institutions in order to stop the tyrants rising up against him. The Persians then subdued Thasos and Macedonia.
  • By establishing a democracy, he gave the people what they wanted and so lessened the hostility felt towards him
  • Artaphernes sent for representatives from all Ionian states and forced them to take an oath to settle their differences with diplomacy - this was to stop potential unrest
  • He surveyed territories and measured them in parasangs as well as settling the tax, which afterwards stayed the same every year
What two problems did Mardonius face?
  • The fleet was caught in a storm and all but destroyed. As many as 300 ships were lost along with over 20,000 men
  • On land Mardonius and his army were attacked by the Brygi, a Thracian tribe. Losses were heavy and Mardonius himself was injured. He did not leave the country until the Brygi were subdued
  • Their losses were so great overall that they were forced to retreat back to Asia in disgrace
How did Darius deal with a potential revolt from Thasos? Why was he so concerned?
  • He demanded that they dismantle their defenses and send their navy to Abdera
  • He was concerned because they were very rich,with a revenue of 200-300 talents a year from mining etc and had a large navy - for this meant that they weren't only a threat, but a loss to Darius if he could no longer control them
How do Sparta and Athens respond to Aegina's submission to Persia? Why did they react in this way?
  • Athens and King Cleomenes sailed to Aegina and arrested the ringleaders. They believed that their submission to Darius was out of spite for Athens. The Athenians went to Sparta and accused the Aeginetans of acting to betray Hellas
  • When Cleomenes attempted to arrest the ringleaders, Crius told him that he had no authority from the Spartans and accused him of being bribed by the Athenians (otherwise he would have brought the other king with him). He said this because of a letter from Demaratus, the other king of Sparta

Tuesday, 1 October 2019

The Ionian Revolt Links

The Greeks of Asia Minor and the Persian Empire
Cyrus the Great
Darius I
Histiaseus and Aristagoras
Causes of the Ionian Revolt
Aristagoras' attempts to gain support
Why did Athens send help?
Part played by Athens and Eretria
Ionians on the defensive
The Ionian Defeat
The Ionian Revolt: What happened next?

The Ionian Defeat

Reasons for the Ionian Defeat:

  • The Persian Empire had the resources to maintain a sustained war effort
  • The Ionians lacked unity and discipline
Results and Significance:
  • Miletus, one of the most powerful Greek cities, had been utterly destroyed
  • Generally, the Ionians were treated with respect - Artaphernes changed policy to a slightly less heavy handed approach
  • Darius eventually sent his trusted general Mardonius to set up democracies, knowing how much the Greeks hated tyranny
  • The revolt had completely failed
  • Darius then turned his eyes towards a new attractive prize - Greece

Ionians on the defensive

After this defeat, the Athenians and Eretrians retreated back to Greece. The Persians then went on the offensive and soundly crushed the revolt:

  • There was a great battle at Ladé
  • Samos withdrew, followed by others
  • The Greeks were defeated
  • Miletus was destroyed and its people sold into slavery
  • Histiaeus was killed and Aristagoras fled to Thrace

Part played by Athens and Eretria in the Ionian Revolt

"The sailing of the fleet was the beginning of trouble, not only for Greece but for all" Herodotus 5.98

The burning of Sardis:
  • Athenians landed in Ionia and marched inland to Sardis, Artaphernes' capital
  • They captured and burned the city, destroying the temples of the goddess Cybele
  • They were soon defeated near Ephesus by a Persian force
Significance:
  • Darius swore vengeance on the Athenians, commanding his servants to repeat to him the words "Master, remember the Athenians" three times before he ate dinner every evening

Why did Athens send help?


  • The Athenians were already on bad terms with Persia. Artaphernes, the satrap (governor) of Asia Minor had not long previously tried to restore an ex-tyrant called Hippias to Athens by threatening them with subjugation
  • The new democracy at Athens was opposed to tyranny
  • The Greeks were becoming alarmed at Darius' movements into Europe
  • Aristagoras pointed out that there was a close link between Athens and Ionia. Miletus was founded by Athenian settlers

Aristagoras' attempts to gain support

Aristagoras had successfully convinced the Greeks in Ionia to revolt. However, he knew that alone they could not defeat Persia. He needed to find help elsewhere in order to be successful

  • He renounced his own tyranny and urged other Greek leaders to do the same
  • He went to mainland Greece to seek support from Sparta and Athens. The Spartans were not interested when they realised how far away the revolt was. Athens and Eretria agreed to send aid, with Athens contributing 20 warships and Eretria 5

Causes of the Ionian Revolt

According to Herodotus:

  • The ambitions and intrigues of a scheming Aristagoras

Underlying causes:

  • The Greeks had lost their autonomy and independence, something that was precious to them
  • They were subject not only to another power, but an oriental "barbarian" king
  • Tyrants had been imposed on them and tyranny was no longer acceptable to the Greeks (they preferred more democratic systems)

Histiaeus and Aristagoras

  • Histiaeus and Aristagoras were two of the tyrants appointed by Darius to rule over the Ionian  city of Miletus
  • Together they plotted to capture the rivaling (free) Greek island of Naxos
  • Their military expedition failed miserably. Histiaeus and Aristagoras were shamed, with their positions as tyrants looking very vulnerable
  • Sensing his imminent removal as a tyrant, Aristagoras chose to incite the whole of Ionia into rebellion against Darius and the Persians

Darius I

Reign 521-486 BC
  • Overthrew Cyrus' son, Cambyses, and established himself as king of Persia
  • He wished to follow in the footsteps of Cyrus and Cambyses and increase Persia's domains
  • Europe became an attractive target. He sent expeditions to scout Greece and Italy
  • In 513 BC he crossed the Bosphorus into Europe, quickly subduing Thrace, north of Greece
  • He also set up tyrants in the Ionian cities who would rule as puppet kings for Persia

The Greeks of Asia minor and the Persian empire

  • Greek states had been established along the coast of Asia Minor (Ionia) for centuries
  • The freedom of these Greek states was precarious since they lacked political unity
  • 560 BC - Wealthy kingdom of Lydia under King Croesus subjugated all of Asia Minor apart from Miletus
  • Croesus was sympathetic to Greek ideas of freedom and individualism, and so respected Greek gods and customs

Cyrus the Great

In the East, Cyrus the Great overthrew the Medians and established the Persian Empire. Over time he slowly expanded westward:
  • 546 BC - Cyrus captured Sardis, the capital of Lydia.
  • Lydia, the barrier between Greece and Persia had fallen
  • Worse still, the Ionians had aided Croesus and Lydia against the Persians
  • Cyrus imposed harsh penalties on the Ionians: heavy tributes as well as obligations to provide troops and ships if called upon

Athenian Government

  • The Athenian government was democratic
  • Major decisions were taken by the assembly , open only to males above the age of 18
  • The assembly met regularly to debate issues put forward by a committee, but anyone was allowed to have a say
  • The assembly couldn't meet everyday so mundane financial matters and the day to day running of the states' affairs were handled by several smaller committees
  • The most important of these was the council, which was made up of 500 men who were selected at random from male citizens over 30
  • The council prepared the agenda for the assembly
  • There was a permanent sub-committee of 50 members of the council who lived in a special building next to the council chamber
  • Members of the council and committee changed every year, making the process fairer
  • Although anyone was entitled to speak, meetings were dominated by men of wealth, power and status
  • Pericles was the most influential. He was rich, well-bred, a good military commander and very persuasive
  • This meant that he was elected general every year for decades
  • His proposals were for using the political power and financial resources of Athens to help the poor

Athenian Society


  • Athens was the cultural and intellectual centre of the Greek world in fifth century BC
  • Most traditional 'Greek' things that come to mind come from Athens, including philosophy, comedy, tragedy, science, mathematics and more
  • Many flocked to Athens to experience the culture. These immigrants were known as "Metics"
  • Athens embraced diversity and its connections to the Mediterranean world
  • Athens became known as a city always looking to innovate and improve itself
  • Women were second class citizens and the property of their husbands and male relatives
  • There was incredible inequality, with the small and wealthy elite dominating the social and political life of the city
  • Slavery was rife, with between a third and a half of all residents being imported slaves
  • This meant that Athens relied on having a submissive slave population in order to keep the peace