Darius' Inscription

"By the favour of Ahuramazda these are the countries which I seized outside of Persia; I ruled over them; they bore tribute to me; they did what was said to them by me; they held my law firmly; Media, Elam, Parthia, Aria, Bactria, Sogdia, Chorasmia, Drangiana, Arachosia, Sattagydia, Gandara, India, the haoma drinking Scythians, the Scythians with pointed caps, Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt, Armenia, Cappadocia, Lydia, the Greeks, the Scythians across the sea, Thrace, the sun hat-wearing Greeks, the Libyans, the Nubians, the men of Maka and the Carians"

Through the various inscriptions from the Nasq-e Rustam, Darius emphasises different characteristics that he wishes to be remembered as having. He paints himself as 'chosen' by God "By favour of Ahura Mazda", righteous "I am a friend of the Right", diplomatic "Does not convince me, until I hear the testimony of both", skilled/confident "good horseman", "good bowman", "good commander" and "good spearman", intelligent "bestowed wisdom and courage upon Darius the king", collected "I am not hot tempered" and renowned "the spear of the Persian has gone far"

Nasq-e Rustam

• About 6km north of Persepolis, the great royal city built by Darius
• it is the burial site of four Persian kings, including Darius.
• Carrying him on the throne are human figures, each one representing the lands of the empire. It is thought that Darius had this tomb built during the final years of his reign
• The inscriptions at Nasq-e Rustam are just one of a number of Persian royal inscriptions, in which Persian kings set out their ideology
• It should be said that there were no historians in the Persian Empire, and so we are very limited in our access to sources on the Persian side
• The royal inscriptions are in fact out most detailed written documents from the Persian perspective. No royal inscription makes any mention of a military campaign against in the Greek world - the only mention of the Greeks is simply as one of the subject peoples of the empire

The Ionian Revolt: What happened next?

How do Sparta and Athens respond?

• Upon learning that the journey to Ionia would take 3 months, Cleomenes (one of the Spartan kings) refused to help. When Aristagoras offered him 50 talents, Cleomenes' daughter Gorgo (only 8 or 9 years old at the time) warned him that the offer could corrupt him and so Cleomenes refused
• The Athenians reacted differently. Upon Hippias' return to Asia he tried to convince Artaphernes (the satrap of Ionia) to capture Athens for Darius. The Athenians sent to Sardis to urge the Persians to not listen to Hippias. Artaphernes threatened them and said that they had to take Hippias back. The Athenians refused and accepted the consequence of open hostility to Persia.
• It was at this time that Aristagoras arrived in Athens and made a speech before the people - telling them of the gold, silver, bronze and fine clothing in Persia, as well as the fact that the Persians fought without armour, with basic weapons. Once they were persuaded to accept the deal, the Athenians sent 20 ships to Ionia under the command of Melanthius

What actions did Darius take towards the Ionians following the revolt?

• He superseded all of his other generals and sent Mardonius (son of Gorbryas and Darius' sister) down to the coast in command of a very large military and naval force. When he reached Ionia, he suppressed all of the Ionian tyrants and set up democratic institutions in order to stop the tyrants rising up against him. The Persians then subdued Thasos and Macedonia.
• By establishing a democracy, he gave the people what they wanted and so lessened the hostility felt towards him
• Artaphernes sent for representatives from all Ionian states and forced them to take an oath to settle their differences with diplomacy - this was to stop potential unrest
• He surveyed territories and measured them in parasangs as well as settling the tax, which afterwards stayed the same every year

What two problems did Mardonius face?

• The fleet was caught in a storm and all but destroyed. As many as 300 ships were lost along with over 20,000 men
• On land Mardonius and his army were attacked by the Brygi, a Thracian tribe. Losses were heavy and Mardonius himself was injured. He did not leave the country until the Brygi were subdued
• Their losses were so great overall that they were forced to retreat back to Asia in disgrace

How did Darius deal with a potential revolt from Thasos? Why was he so concerned?

• He demanded that they dismantle their defenses and send their navy to Abdera
• He was concerned because they were very rich,with a revenue of 200-300 talents a year from mining etc and had a large navy - for this meant that they weren't only a threat, but a loss to Darius if he could no longer control them

How do Sparta and Athens respond to Aegina's submission to Persia? Why did they react in this way?

• Athens and King Cleomenes sailed to Aegina and arrested the ringleaders. They believed that their submission to Darius was out of spite for Athens. The Athenians went to Sparta and accused the Aeginetans of acting to betray Hellas
• When Cleomenes attempted to arrest the ringleaders, Crius told him that he had no authority from the Spartans and accused him of being bribed by the Athenians (otherwise he would have brought the other king with him). He said this because of a letter from Demaratus, the other king of Sparta

The Ionian Revolt Links

The Greeks of Asia Minor and the Persian Empire
Cyrus the Great
Darius I
Histiaseus and Aristagoras
Causes of the Ionian Revolt
Aristagoras' attempts to gain support
Why did Athens send help?
Part played by Athens and Eretria
Ionians on the defensive
The Ionian Defeat
The Ionian Revolt: What happened next?

The Ionian Defeat

Reasons for the Ionian Defeat:

• The Persian Empire had the resources to maintain a sustained war effort
• The Ionians lacked unity and discipline

Results and Significance:

• Miletus, one of the most powerful Greek cities, had been utterly destroyed
• Generally, the Ionians were treated with respect - Artaphernes changed policy to a slightly less heavy handed approach
• Darius eventually sent his trusted general Mardonius to set up democracies, knowing how much the Greeks hated tyranny
• The revolt had completely failed
• Darius then turned his eyes towards a new attractive prize - Greece

Ionians on the defensive

After this defeat, the Athenians and Eretrians retreated back to Greece. The Persians then went on the offensive and soundly crushed the revolt:

• There was a great battle at Ladé
• Samos withdrew, followed by others
• The Greeks were defeated
• Miletus was destroyed and its people sold into slavery
• Histiaeus was killed and Aristagoras fled to Thrace

Part played by Athens and Eretria in the Ionian Revolt

"The sailing of the fleet was the beginning of trouble, not only for Greece but for all" Herodotus 5.98

The burning of Sardis:

• Athenians landed in Ionia and marched inland to Sardis, Artaphernes' capital
• They captured and burned the city, destroying the temples of the goddess Cybele
• They were soon defeated near Ephesus by a Persian force

Significance:

• Darius swore vengeance on the Athenians, commanding his servants to repeat to him the words "Master, remember the Athenians" three times before he ate dinner every evening

Why did Athens send help?

• The Athenians were already on bad terms with Persia. Artaphernes, the satrap (governor) of Asia Minor had not long previously tried to restore an ex-tyrant called Hippias to Athens by threatening them with subjugation
• The new democracy at Athens was opposed to tyranny
• The Greeks were becoming alarmed at Darius' movements into Europe
• Aristagoras pointed out that there was a close link between Athens and Ionia. Miletus was founded by Athenian settlers

Aristagoras' attempts to gain support

Aristagoras had successfully convinced the Greeks in Ionia to revolt. However, he knew that alone they could not defeat Persia. He needed to find help elsewhere in order to be successful

• He renounced his own tyranny and urged other Greek leaders to do the same
• He went to mainland Greece to seek support from Sparta and Athens. The Spartans were not interested when they realised how far away the revolt was. Athens and Eretria agreed to send aid, with Athens contributing 20 warships and Eretria 5

Causes of the Ionian Revolt

According to Herodotus:

• The ambitions and intrigues of a scheming Aristagoras

Underlying causes:

• The Greeks had lost their autonomy and independence, something that was precious to them
• They were subject not only to another power, but an oriental "barbarian" king
• Tyrants had been imposed on them and tyranny was no longer acceptable to the Greeks (they preferred more democratic systems)

Histiaeus and Aristagoras

• Histiaeus and Aristagoras were two of the tyrants appointed by Darius to rule over the Ionian  city of Miletus
• Together they plotted to capture the rivaling (free) Greek island of Naxos
• Their military expedition failed miserably. Histiaeus and Aristagoras were shamed, with their positions as tyrants looking very vulnerable
• Sensing his imminent removal as a tyrant, Aristagoras chose to incite the whole of Ionia into rebellion against Darius and the Persians

Darius I

Reign 521-486 BC

• Overthrew Cyrus' son, Cambyses, and established himself as king of Persia
• He wished to follow in the footsteps of Cyrus and Cambyses and increase Persia's domains
• Europe became an attractive target. He sent expeditions to scout Greece and Italy
• In 513 BC he crossed the Bosphorus into Europe, quickly subduing Thrace, north of Greece
• He also set up tyrants in the Ionian cities who would rule as puppet kings for Persia

The Greeks of Asia minor and the Persian empire

• Greek states had been established along the coast of Asia Minor (Ionia) for centuries
• The freedom of these Greek states was precarious since they lacked political unity
• 560 BC - Wealthy kingdom of Lydia under King Croesus subjugated all of Asia Minor apart from Miletus
• Croesus was sympathetic to Greek ideas of freedom and individualism, and so respected Greek gods and customs

Cyrus the Great

In the East, Cyrus the Great overthrew the Medians and established the Persian Empire. Over time he slowly expanded westward:

• 546 BC - Cyrus captured Sardis, the capital of Lydia.
• Lydia, the barrier between Greece and Persia had fallen
• Worse still, the Ionians had aided Croesus and Lydia against the Persians
• Cyrus imposed harsh penalties on the Ionians: heavy tributes as well as obligations to provide troops and ships if called upon

Athenian Government

• The Athenian government was democratic
• Major decisions were taken by the assembly , open only to males above the age of 18
• The assembly met regularly to debate issues put forward by a committee, but anyone was allowed to have a say
• The assembly couldn't meet everyday so mundane financial matters and the day to day running of the states' affairs were handled by several smaller committees
• The most important of these was the council, which was made up of 500 men who were selected at random from male citizens over 30
• The council prepared the agenda for the assembly
• There was a permanent sub-committee of 50 members of the council who lived in a special building next to the council chamber
• Members of the council and committee changed every year, making the process fairer
• Although anyone was entitled to speak, meetings were dominated by men of wealth, power and status
• Pericles was the most influential. He was rich, well-bred, a good military commander and very persuasive
• This meant that he was elected general every year for decades
• His proposals were for using the political power and financial resources of Athens to help the poor

Athenian Society

• Athens was the cultural and intellectual centre of the Greek world in fifth century BC
• Most traditional 'Greek' things that come to mind come from Athens, including philosophy, comedy, tragedy, science, mathematics and more
• Many flocked to Athens to experience the culture. These immigrants were known as "Metics"
• Athens embraced diversity and its connections to the Mediterranean world
• Athens became known as a city always looking to innovate and improve itself
• Women were second class citizens and the property of their husbands and male relatives
• There was incredible inequality, with the small and wealthy elite dominating the social and political life of the city
• Slavery was rife, with between a third and a half of all residents being imported slaves
• This meant that Athens relied on having a submissive slave population in order to keep the peace

Athenian Military and Man Power

• It is estimated that there were 40,000 male Athenians in 431BC
• About 1,000 men were estimated to be wealthy enough to be cavalrymen
• As many as 20,000 may have been eligible to serve as hoplites (the heavily armoured infantry men who formed the core of the army)
• Less than half of these would be called to fight at any given time
• Athens' forces were composed of allied citizens and mercenaries
• The Athenians excelled in naval power. They developed their navy after the first Persian invasion so that they would be prepared if the Persians tried to invade again (which they did)
• They contributed the most ships during the Persian war (147 out of 271)
• This meant that they could react quickly to any events overseas
• Their naval forces allowed Athens to dominate the Aegean sea
• However, managing a large fleet required a lot of resources that were difficult to acquire
• A trireme (ship) usually required 150-170 oarsmen, plus skilled sailors and steersmen, who were especially hard to find
• Using mercenaries to supplement their numbers was risky

Spartan Military and Man Power

• The Spartans were obsessed with military training.
• There were no occupations for Spartans other than that of the warrior. The city was maintained by slaves who worked the land.
• Training began in childhood.
• At 18 Spartans were given the right to attend meetings of the citizen assembly and go on military expeditions.
• They were famous for being the best warriors and never running from battle. It was Spartan law that retreat was not an option.
• Because of the brutish nature of the Spartans, as well as their reputation, they were renowned and feared.
• The Spartans were never of a massive population. It is believed that the greatest extent of the Spartan population was less than 10,000. By the start of the Peloponnesian war, there may have only been 5,000 Spartans left.
• The Spartans partially relied on the non-Spartan population of Lakonia, called the Periokoi, to help fight their battles.
• The Perioikoi worked for a living. They made the armour and weapons used by the Spartans, as well as pottery, furniture and cloth. They fought alongside the Spartans as hoplites.
• When Sparta needed a large army, they called on the allied states of the Peloponnesian league. The nearest were the cities of Arcadia, which weren't large, but could muster hundreds of soldiers. Larger contingents were contributed by more distant states (Corinth and Thebes)
• These allies provided the majority of hoplites in any Spartan army.

Spartan Society

• Spartan society was geared towards breeding and raising the finest soldiers.
• Every citizen was forced to devote their life to meagre and strict living in order to breed tough warriors
• Boys were taken from their mothers at the age of 7 and put through a brutal training regime called the agoge
• Reading and writing were considered unimportant and so were taught at a minimum.
• Education was all about physical endurance.
• Spartans lived in communal barracks until the age of 30 to promote comradery and obedience.
• They lived in almost a communist society. Food was rationed equally between citizens and equality was a major focus. Money and luxuries were outlawed and each citizen was given an equal plot of farmland.
• Men and women were considered to be equals.
• Spartan society was built on the back of slaves who were taken from neighbouring Greek land. These slaves were called Helots
• The Helots were treated brutally in order to keep them in line. This meant that the Spartans and the Helots hated each other. As the Helots outnumbered the Spartans 20:1, the Spartans lived in constant fear of a revolution. This, in turn, made Spartans hostile towards all outsiders, just in case they were to convince the Helots to revolt.

Spartan Government

• The Spartans had an unusual political system because it combined two different political systems. Unlike in Athens, Sparta was ruled by a monarchy.
• Sparta had two hereditary kings from separate families in order to avoid dictatorship.
• The monarchs were particularly powerful when one of them led the army as supreme commander.
• This constitution was designed to achieve Eunomia (balance or harmony)
• The Spartans saw democracy as being too radical. However, they understood that the monarchy was problematic due to the risk of tyrants. By combining the systems they hoped to create a balance.
• The Ephors could depose the kings if they became too powerful, and by having two they avoided giving all the power to one man.
• This system was designed to promote efficiency too, since in times of war a democratic approach would mean that decision making would be too time consuming.
• There were issues with this system, however, as the two kings often competed for power. There are numerous instances of them deposing one another.
• The Spartan's assembly voted by shouting and so was very easy to manipulate.
• Overall, Sparta had a reputation as being a conservative state, slow to make decisions and open to corruption.